Characterization of the human platelet N- and O-glycome upon storage using tandem mass spectrometry.

Changes in surface glycan determinants, specifically sialic acid loss, determine platelet life span. The gradual loss of stored platelet quality is a complex process that fundamentally involves carbohydrate structures. Here, we applied lipophilic extraction and glycan release protocols to sequentially profile N- and O-linked glycans in freshly isolated and 7-day room temperature-stored platelet concentrates. Analytical methods including matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, tandem mass spectrometry, and liquid chromatography were used to obtain structural details of selected glycans and terminal epitopes. The fresh platelet repertoire of surface structures revealed diverse N-glycans, including high mannose structures, complex glycans with polylactosamine repeats, and glycans presenting blood group epitopes. The O-glycan repertoire largely comprised sialylated and fucosylated core-1 and core-2 structures. For both N- and O-linked glycans, we observed a loss in sialylated epitopes with a reciprocal increase in neutral structures as well as increased neuraminidase activity after platelet storage at room temperature. The data indicate that loss of sialylated glycans is associated with diminished platelet quality and untimely removal of platelets after storage.

To Clot or Not to Clot: Deepening Our Understanding of Alterations in the Hemostatic System.

The session on the hemostatic system focused on new developments in coagulation and platelet biology as well as how therapeutic agents may affect hemostasis. The classic cascade model of coagulation was compared with the more recent models of cell-based and vascular-based coagulation, which may provide better insight on how the coagulation cascade works in vivo. A review of platelet biology highlighted that, as platelets age, desialylated platelets form and are recognized by Ashwell-Morell receptor (AMR), leading to hepatic uptake and subsequent increase in thrombopoietin (TPO) production. Administration of therapeutics that induce thrombocytopenia was also discussed, including Mylotarg, which is an antibody-drug conjugate that was shown to decrease human megakaryocyte development but had no effect on platelet aggregation. An acetyl co-A carboxylase inhibitor was shown to cause thrombocytopenia by inhibiting de novo lipogenesis, which is critical for the formation of the megakaryocyte demarcation membrane system responsible for platelet production. It was also illustrated how preclinical translation models have been very helpful in the development of adeno-associated virus (AAV) hemophilia B gene therapy and what old and new preclinical tools we have that can predict the risk of a prothrombotic state in people.

Immune cells surveil aberrantly sialylated O-glycans on megakaryocytes to regulate platelet count.

Immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) is a platelet disorder. Pediatric and adult ITP have been associated with sialic acid alterations, but the pathophysiology of ITP remains elusive, and ITP is often a diagnosis of exclusion. Our analysis of pediatric ITP plasma samples showed increased anti-Thomsen-Friedenreich antigen (TF antigen) antibody representation, suggesting increased exposure of the typically sialylated and cryptic TF antigen in these patients. The O-glycan sialyltransferase St3gal1 adds sialic acid specifically on the TF antigen. To understand if TF antigen exposure associates with thrombocytopenia, we generated a mouse model with targeted deletion of St3gal1 in megakaryocytes (MK) (St3gal1MK-/-). TF antigen exposure was restricted to MKs and resulted in thrombocytopenia. Deletion of Jak3 in St3gal1MK-/- mice normalized platelet counts implicating involvement of immune cells. Interferon-producing Siglec H-positive bone marrow (BM) immune cells engaged with O-glycan sialic acid moieties to regulate type I interferon secretion and platelet release (thrombopoiesis), as evidenced by partially normalized platelet count following inhibition of interferon and Siglec H receptors. Single-cell RNA-sequencing determined that TF antigen exposure by MKs primed St3gal1MK-/- BM immune cells to release type I interferon. Single-cell RNA-sequencing further revealed a new population of immune cells with a plasmacytoid dendritic cell-like signature and concomitant upregulation of the immunoglobulin rearrangement gene transcripts Igkc and Ighm, suggesting additional immune regulatory mechanisms. Thus, aberrant TF antigen moieties, often found in pathological conditions, regulate immune cells and thrombopoiesis in the BM, leading to reduced platelet count.

Circulating blood and platelets supply glycosyltransferases that enable extrinsic extracellular glycosylation.

Glycosyltransferases, usually residing within the intracellular secretory apparatus, also circulate in the blood. Many of these blood-borne glycosyltransferases are associated with pathological states, including malignancies and inflammatory conditions. Despite the potential for dynamic modifications of glycans on distal cell surfaces and in the extracellular milieu, the glycan-modifying activities present in systemic circulation have not been systematically examined. Here, we describe an evaluation of blood-borne sialyl-, galactosyl- and fucosyltransferase activities that act upon the four common terminal glycan precursor motifs, GlcNAc monomer, Gal(ß3)GlcNAc, Gal(ß4)GlcNAc and Gal(ß3)GalNAc, to produce more complex glycan structures. Data from radioisotope assays and detailed product analysis by sequential tandem mass spectrometry show that blood has the capacity to generate many of the well-recognized and important glycan motifs, including the Lewis, sialyl-Lewis, H- and Sialyl-T antigens. While many of these glycosyltransferases are freely circulating in the plasma, human and mouse platelets are important carriers for others, including ST3Gal-1 and ß4GalT. Platelets compartmentalize glycosyltransferases and release them upon activation. Human platelets are also carriers for large amounts of ST6Gal-1 and the α3-sialyl to Gal(ß4)GlcNAc sialyltransferases, both of which are conspicuously absent in mouse platelets. This study highlights the capability of circulatory glycosyltransferases, which are dynamically controlled by platelet activation, to remodel cell surface glycans and alter cell behavior.

Regulating billions of blood platelets: glycans and beyond.

The human body produces and removes 10(11) platelets daily to maintain a normal steady state platelet count. Platelet production must be regulated to avoid spontaneous bleeding or arterial occlusion and organ damage. Multifaceted and complex mechanisms control platelet production and removal in physiological and pathological conditions. This review will focus on different mechanisms of platelet senescence and clearance with specific emphasis on the role of posttranslational modifications. It will also briefly address platelet transfusion and the role of glycans in the clearance of stored platelets.

Desialylation is a mechanism of Fc-independent platelet clearance and a therapeutic target in immune thrombocytopenia.

Immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) is a common bleeding disorder caused primarily by autoantibodies against platelet GPIIbIIIa and/or the GPIb complex. Current theory suggests that antibody-mediated platelet destruction occurs in the spleen, via macrophages through Fc-FcγR interactions. However, we and others have demonstrated that anti-GPIbα (but not GPIIbIIIa)-mediated ITP is often refractory to therapies targeting FcγR pathways. Here, we generate mouse anti-mouse monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that recognize GPIbα and GPIIbIIIa of different species. Utilizing these unique mAbs and human ITP plasma, we find that anti-GPIbα, but not anti-GPIIbIIIa antibodies, induces Fc-independent platelet activation, sialidase neuraminidase-1 translocation and desialylation. This leads to platelet clearance in the liver via hepatocyte Ashwell-Morell receptors, which is fundamentally different from the classical Fc-FcγR-dependent macrophage phagocytosis. Importantly, sialidase inhibitors ameliorate anti-GPIbα-mediated thrombocytopenia in mice. These findings shed light on Fc-independent cytopenias, designating desialylation as a potential diagnostic biomarker and therapeutic target in the treatment of refractory ITP.

Novel mechanisms of platelet clearance and thrombopoietin regulation.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The human body produces and removes 10 platelets daily to maintain a normal steady-state platelet count. Platelet production must be tightly regulated to avoid spontaneous bleeding or arterial occlusion and organ damage. Multifaceted and complex mechanisms control platelet removal and production in physiological and pathological conditions. This review will focus on different mechanisms of platelet clearance, with focus on the biological significance of platelet glycans. RECENT FINDINGS: The Ashwell-Morrell receptor (AMR) recognizes senescent, desialylated platelets under steady state conditions. Desialylated platelets and the AMR are the physiological ligand-receptor pair regulating hepatic thrombopoietin (TPO) mRNA production, resolving the longstanding mystery of steady state TPO regulation. The AMR-mediated removal of desialylated platelets regulates TPO synthesis in the liver by recruiting JAK2 and STAT3 to increase thrombopoiesis. SUMMARY: Inhibition of TPO production downstream of the hepatic AMR-JAK2 signaling cascade could additionally contribute to the thrombocytopenia associated with JAK1/2 treatment, which is clinically used in myeloproliferative neoplasms.

Dynamin 2-dependent endocytosis is required for normal megakaryocyte development in mice.

Dynamins are highly conserved large GTPases (enzymes that hydrolyze guanosine triphosphate) involved in endocytosis and vesicle transport, and mutations in the ubiquitous and housekeeping dynamin 2 (DNM2) have been associated with thrombocytopenia in humans. To determine the role of DNM2 in thrombopoiesis, we generated Dnm2(fl/fl) Pf4-Cre mice specifically lacking DNM2 in the megakaryocyte (MK) lineage. Dnm2(fl/fl) Pf4-Cre mice had severe macrothrombocytopenia with moderately accelerated platelet clearance. Dnm2-null bone marrow MKs had altered demarcation membrane system formation in vivo due to defective endocytic pathway, and fetal liver-derived Dnm2-null MKs formed proplatelets poorly in vitro, showing that DNM2-dependent endocytosis plays a major role in MK membrane formation and thrombopoiesis. Endocytosis of the thrombopoietin receptor Mpl was impaired in Dnm2-null platelets, causing constitutive phosphorylation of the tyrosine kinase JAK2 and elevated circulating thrombopoietin levels. MK-specific DNM2 deletion severely disrupted bone marrow homeostasis, as reflected by marked expansion of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, MK hyperplasia, myelofibrosis, and consequent extramedullary hematopoiesis and splenomegaly. Taken together, our data demonstrate that unrestrained MK growth and proliferation results in rapid myelofibrosis and establishes a previously unrecognized role for DNM2-dependent endocytosis in megakaryopoiesis, thrombopoiesis, and bone marrow homeostasis.

The Ashwell-Morell receptor regulates hepatic thrombopoietin production via JAK2-STAT3 signaling.

The hepatic Ashwell-Morell receptor (AMR) can bind and remove desialylated platelets. Here we demonstrate that platelets become desialylated as they circulate and age in blood. Binding of desialylated platelets to the AMR induces hepatic expression of thrombopoietin (TPO) mRNA and protein, thereby regulating platelet production. Endocytic AMR controls TPO expression through Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) and the acute phase response signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in vivo and in vitro. Recognition of this newly identified physiological feedback mechanism illuminates the pathophysiology of platelet diseases, such as essential thrombocythemia and immune thrombocytopenia, and contributes to an understanding of the mechanisms of thrombocytopenia observed with JAK1/2 inhibition.

Expansion of the neonatal platelet mass is achieved via an extension of platelet lifespan.

The fetal/neonatal hematopoietic system must generate enough blood cells to meet the demands of rapid growth. This unique challenge might underlie the high incidence of thrombocytopenia among preterm neonates. In this study, neonatal platelet production and turnover were investigated in newborn mice. Based on a combination of blood volume expansion and increasing platelet counts, the platelet mass increased sevenfold during the first 2 weeks of murine life, a time during which thrombopoiesis shifted from liver to bone marrow. Studies applying in vivo biotinylation and mathematical modeling showed that newborn and adult mice had similar platelet production rates, but neonatal platelets survived 1 day longer in circulation. This prolonged lifespan fully accounted for the rise in platelet counts observed during the second week of murine postnatal life. A study of pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins showed that neonatal platelets had higher levels of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 and were more resistant to apoptosis induced by the Bcl-2/Bcl-xL inhibitor ABT-737 than adult platelets. However, genetic ablation or pharmacologic inhibition of Bcl-2 alone did not shorten neonatal platelet survival or reduce platelet counts in newborn mice, indicating the existence of redundant or alternative mechanisms mediating the prolonged lifespan of neonatal platelets.

Novel clearance mechanisms of platelets.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Blood platelets are involved in primary and secondary hemostasis and thus maintain the integrity of the vasculature. They circulate with an average lifespan of 5-9 days in humans. Thus, the body must generate and clear platelets daily to maintain normal physiological blood platelet counts. Known platelet clearance mechanisms include antibody-mediated clearance by spleen macrophages, as in immune thrombocytopenia, and platelet consumption due to massive blood loss. RECENT FINDINGS: New concepts in the clearance mechanisms of platelets have recently emerged. New evidence shows that platelets desialyted due to chilling or sepsis are cleared in the liver by macrophages, that is Kupffer cells, as well as hepatocytes, through lectin-mediated recognition of platelet glycans. On the contrary, platelet-associated antibodies normalize the clearance of platelets in a mouse model for Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome. SUMMARY: The goal of this review is to summarize the latest findings in platelet clearance mechanisms with a focus on lectin-mediated recognition of platelet glycans. Transfusion medicine and treatments of hematopoietic disorders associated with severe thrombocytopenia may benefit from a better understanding of these mechanisms.

Impaired metabolic effects of a thyroid hormone receptor beta-selective agonist in a mouse model of diet-induced obesity.

BACKGROUND: The use of selective agonists of the thyroid hormone receptor isoform beta (TRbeta) has been linked to metabolic improvement in animal models of diet-induced obesity, nonalcoholic liver disease, and genetic hypercholesterolemia. METHODS: To identify potential target tissues of such compounds, we exposed primary murine brown adipocytes and skeletal myocytes for 24 hours to 50 nM GC-24, a highly selective TRbeta agonist. GC-24 (17 ng/[g BW.day] for 36 days) was also tested in a mouse model of diet-induced obesity. RESULTS: While the brown adipocytes responded to GC-24, with 17%-400% increases in the expression of 12 metabolically relevant genes, the myocytes remained largely unresponsive to GC-24 treatment. In control mice kept on chow diet, GC-24 treatment accelerated energy expenditure by about 15% and limited body weight gain by about 50%. However, in the obese animals the GC-24-mediated reduction in body weight gain dropped to only 20%, while energy expenditure remained unaffected. In addition, an analysis of gene expression in the skeletal muscle, brown adipose tissue, and liver of these obese animals failed to identify a conclusive GC-24 transcriptome footprint. CONCLUSION: Feeding a high-fat diet impairs most of the beneficial metabolic effects associated with treatment with TRbeta-selective agonists.

Expressions of vascular endothelial growth factor and nitric oxide synthase III in the thyroid gland of ovariectomized rats are upregulated by estrogen and selective estrogen receptor modulators.

BACKGROUND: Estrogen promotes the growth of thyroid cells. Therefore, we analyzed the influence of estrogen and selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) on the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and nitric oxide synthase III (NOS III) in the thyroid gland of ovariectomized (Ovx) rats. METHODS: Wistar rats were divided into five groups, and bilateral ovariectomies were performed, except on the Sham-operated controls (Sham). Rats were grouped as follows: Sham; Ovx; and Ovx rats treated with daily subcutaneous injections of estradiol benzoate 3.5 microg/kg, tamoxifen 2.5 mg/kg, or raloxifene 2.5 mg/kg for 50 consecutive days. Control animals received vehicle (propyleneglycol), and at the end of the treatment, rats were sacrificed. The thyroid glands were excised, weighed, and processed for analysis of the expression of VEGF or NOS III by immunohistochemistry. The mean vascular areas were evaluated by immunodetection of alpha-smooth muscle actin. RESULTS: Thyroid weight and mean vascular area were lower in Ovx as compared with Sham, Ovx + estradiol benzoate, Ovx + Tam, or Ovx + Ral (p < 0.01). VEGF (p < 0.01) and NOS III expressions (p < 0.05) were significantly lower in the Ovx group, as compared with Sham, Ovx + estradiol benzoate, Ovx + Tam, and Ovx + Ral. Immunoreactivity for both VEGF and NOS III was mainly detected in the cytoplasm of the follicular epithelial cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that estrogen and SERMs regulate the thyroid gland vascularization and that tamoxifen and raloxifene behave like estrogen does. Estrogen and SERMs upregulate VEGF and NOS III in such a way as to reverse the effects detected on the thyroid microvasculature of the Ovx rats.

Inter-relações entre as funções hormonais do ovário e da tireoide / Interrelations between ovarian and thyroid functions

A relação entre as funções hormonais do ovário e da tireoide vem sendo motivo de interesse da comunidade científica mundial desde o século 19. Ao longo do tempo, diversos estudos objetivaram esclarecer fatos relacionados à interdependência funcional desses sistemas orgânicos. De fato, há evidências da ação direta e indireta do estrogênio na tireoide. Mulheres climatéricas em estado de hipoestrogenismo podem apresentar alterações na função tireoidea. Foram demonstrados efeitos da gonadectomia e da administração de estrogênio na tireoide de animais e de humanos. Por outro lado, alterações da função tireoidea podem causar distúrbios da função reprodutiva feminina. Mulheres portadoras de doenças da tireoide podem apresentar distúrbios menstruais, infertilidade e complicações do ciclo grávido-puerperal. Sendo assim, indicam-se procedimentos para a detecção de distúrbios tireoideos em diversas situações clínicas relacionadas à função reprodutiva feminina. Além disso, a função tireoidea deve ser cuidadosamente avaliada em mulheres com hipotireoidismo durante a gestação ou quando submetidas à estrogenioterapia. Dessa maneira, a função e as doenças da tireoide são assuntos de interesse para o ginecologista. É fundamental a conscientização do profissional que presta assistência à saúde da mulher em relação aos diversos aspectos relacionados às interações entre a tireoide e a função reprodutiva feminina.

Since the 19th century the interrelation between thyroid and sex organs function is recognized. In fact, there are evidences that estrogens act indirectly on the thyroid gland. Postmenopausal women can show altered thyroid function tests. It has been shown in animals and in humans that gonadectomy and estrogens treatment exert effects on thyroid gland. Also, thyroid dysfunction is associated with reproductive dysfunction in women. Both hyper and hypothyroidism may result in menstrual disturbances, infertility, abortion and complicated pregnancy. Tests for detection of thyroid disorders should be performed in women in many situations related to reproductive function. Patients with hypothyroidism should be strictly monitored during pregnancy and hormone replacement therapy with estrogens. Thus, thyroid dysfunction should be a point of interest for gynecologists. Practitioners providing health care for women should be aware of the consequences related to the interactions between these two endocrine systems .

Type 2 deiodinase expression is induced by peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonists in skeletal myocytes.

The thyroid hormone activating type 2 deiodinase (D2) is known to play a role in brown adipose tissue-mediated adaptive thermogenesis in rodents, but the finding of D2 in skeletal muscle raises the possibility of a broader metabolic role. In the current study, we examined the regulation of the D2 pathway in primary skeletal muscle myoblasts taken from both humans and mice. We found that pioglitazone treatment led to a 1.6- to 1.9-fold increase in primary human skeletal myocyte D2 activity; this effect was seen with other peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonists. D2 activity in primary murine skeletal myotubes increased 2.8-fold in response to 5 microM pioglitazone and 1.6-fold in response to 5 nM insulin and increased in a dose-dependent manner in response to lithocholic acid (maximum response at 25 microM was approximately 3.8-fold). We compared Akt phosphorylation in primary myotubes derived from wild-type and D2 knockout (D2KO) mice: phospho-Akt was reduced by 50% in the D2KO muscle after 1 nM insulin exposure. Expression of T(3)-responsive muscle genes via quantitative RT-PCR suggests that D2KO cells have decreased thyroid hormone signaling, which could contribute to the abnormalities in insulin signaling. D2 activity in skeletal muscle fragments from both murine and human sources was low, on the order of about 0.01 fmol/min . mg of muscle protein. The phenotypic changes seen with D2KO cells support a metabolic role for D2 in muscle, hinting at a D2-mediated linkage between thyroid hormone and insulin signaling, but the low activity calls into question whether skeletal muscle D2 is a major source of plasma T(3).

Raloxifene effects on thyroid gland morphology in ovariectomized rats.

We aimed to analyze the effects of raloxifene and estrogen on thyroid gland morphology of ovariectomized rats. Raloxifene treatment led to effects similar to those of estrogen on thyroid glands from ovariectomized rats, so that both were able to normalize the changes detected after ovariectomy.