The Holocene record of the slow loris (Nycticebus sp.) in Java (Indonesia).

OBJECTIVES: (Sub)fossil lorises are rare in Southeast Asia. Their taxonomic relationship with extant populations, and the extent to which their distribution and morphology are influenced by changing environmental conditions, remains poorly understood. This study provides a synthesis of Nycticebus occurrences in Holocene Java. A morphometric analysis of a sample of craniodental remains aims to improve our understanding of their taxonomic status. Morphometrics were also used to explore potential size changes during the Holocene. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Based on the literature and a review of museum catalogs, a synthesis was compiled of (sub)fossil slow loris occurrences in Java. Morphometric data on the mandible and maxilla of 10 (sub)fossil lorises were compared with a dataset of extant specimens to assess variation in size and shape. RESULTS: Five Holocene Nycticebus occurrences were identified in eastern Java. All specimens fall in the range of N. javanicus and N. coucang. The specimens from Hoekgrot, Gua Jimbe, and Sampung suggest an affinity to N. javanicus. The remains from Gua Jimbe and Hoekgrot gave values close to the largest N. javanicus specimens, but the (presumably older) Song Terus specimen was of average size. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: The distribution of Nycticebus suggests that it originally occurred throughout the island. The remains are probably best identified as N. javanicus or N. coucang, but the Neolithic finds from Hoekgrot and Gua Jimbe are presumably N. javanicus. Size variation in Nycticebus was clinal, but although some large specimens were present, no evidence was found for size diminution during the Holocene.

Ecomorphology of the cervid intermediate phalanx and its implications for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction.

This paper reports on newly developed ecomorphological models for the cervid intermediate phalanx. Using a geometric morphometric approach, we quantitatively assess the overall gracility of the bone, the depth and concavity of the proximal articulation and the roundness and symmetry of the distal articulation in the intermediate phalanx, to establish relationships between morphology, locomotor behavior and environment. The morphology of the phalanx was found to vary along a gradient from gracile phalanges with shallow proximal articulations in forms adapted to yielding substrate, to robust phalanges with deeper proximal articulations in taxa adapted to firm substrate. Phylogeny and allometry are accounted for using regressions and phylogenetic comparative methods. Although the results indicate phylogeny explains part of the morphological variation, overall the shape of the intermediate phalanx appears mainly driven by differences in function. Consequently, this element promises to be a useful palaeoenvironmental proxy that can be applied on fossil assemblages with cervid remains.

Ecomorphology of the cervid calcaneus as a proxy for paleoenvironmental reconstruction.

This study presents new ecomorphological models for the cervid calcaneus that can be used to make predictions about the nature of ancient environments. Using geometric morphometrics to quantitatively assess the length of the articular surface supporting the malleolus, the length and orientation of the tuber calcanei, and the position of the articular facets, we aimed to establish correlations between morphological traits, locomotor behavior, and environmental parameters in extant cervids. The morphology of the calcaneus was found to primarily vary with locomotor strategy and habitat, along a continuum from habitats with an open vegetation structure to habitats with a closed vegetation structure. Confounding factors, including sexual dimorphism, allometry, and phylogeny were accounted for using Principal Component Analysis, regressions and phylogenetic comparative methods. The results of our analyses suggested that these factors did not substantially obscure habitat predictions. As such, the calcaneus provides a valuable proxy for paleoenvironmental reconstruction that is broadly applicable to Quaternary fossil assemblages with a sufficiently large sample of cervids.

The earliest evidence for Upper Paleolithic occupation in the Armenian Highlands at Aghitu-3 Cave.

With its well-preserved archaeological and environmental records, Aghitu-3 Cave permits us to examine the settlement patterns of the Upper Paleolithic (UP) people who inhabited the Armenian Highlands. We also test whether settlement of the region between ∼39-24,000 cal BP relates to environmental variability. The earliest evidence occurs in archaeological horizon (AH) VII from ∼39-36,000 cal BP during a mild, moist climatic phase. AH VI shows periodic occupation as warm, humid conditions prevailed from ∼36-32,000 cal BP. As the climate becomes cooler and drier at ∼32-29,000 cal BP (AH V-IV), evidence for occupation is minimal. However, as cooling continues, the deposits of AH III demonstrate that people used the site more intensively from ∼29-24,000 cal BP, leaving behind numerous stone artifacts, faunal remains, and complex combustion features. Despite the climatic fluctuations seen across this 15,000-year sequence, lithic technology remains attuned to one pattern: unidirectional reduction of small cores geared towards the production of bladelets for tool manufacture. Subsistence patterns also remain stable, focused on medium-sized prey such as ovids and caprids, as well as equids. AH III demonstrates an expansion of social networks to the northwest and southwest, as the transport distance of obsidian used to make stone artifacts increases. We also observe the addition of bone tools, including an eyed needle, and shell beads brought from the east, suggesting that these people manufactured complex clothing and wore ornaments. Remains of micromammals, birds, charcoal, pollen, and tephra relate the story of environmental variability. We hypothesize that UP behavior was linked to shifts in demographic pressures and climatic changes. Thus, by combining archaeological and environmental data, we gain a clearer picture about the first UP inhabitants of the Armenian Highlands.