Behavior states are real and observable.

Mudford, Hogg, and Roberts (1999) published additional concerns about their failure to achieve interobserver agreement on adults with mental retardation when using an experimental, 13-category behavior state code we earlier provided to them at their request. They presented findings of interobserver agreements from a videotape of their 3 adult participants that was scored by observers at the University of Kansas. In this response we present extensive investigations demonstrating the reliable measurement of behavior state among infants and adults with mental retardation, including independent data from other state researchers. We give arguments showing why their "videotape study" does not meet requirements for acceptable research methodology and discuss other procedural issues for measuring state behavior among infants with and those without disabilities.

Response to Mudford, Hogg, and Roberts on continuous recording of behavior state.

A recently published article by Modford, Hogg, and Roberts (1997) raised concerns about the observation code used by Guess, Rues, and Roberts (1993) in a longitudinal research project to assess emerging behavior state patterns in infants and young children. Specifically, Mudford et al. found low within-state reliability scores when they used the code with 3 adults who had profound mental retardation. From these findings, Mudford et al. questioned whether the state code satisfies the natural science approach for measuring observable behavior and whether behavior state in only a hypothetical construct. In response, we have raised concerns about the thoroughness of the reliability data collected by Mudford et al. and the conclusions and interpretations they derived from these data.

Analyzing Behavior State and Learning Environments: application in instructional settings.

An evaluation of the effects of the ABLE (Analyzing Behavior State and Learning Environments) model was presented. Eight teachers received training on observing behavior state and relevant environmental variables; analyzing potential effects of nutrition and medications; identifying strategies for individual students; and participating in a process to generate classroom-based intervention strategies based on their observations. Results showed that teachers were able to reliably implement the model, which produced significant increases in occurrences of the preferred alert and active states and significant decreases in nonpreferred states, such as sleep, drowse, daze, and crying/agitated. Additional findings indicated that the teachers were satisfied with the training procedures and found the model to be relevant and appropriate for students with profound mental retardation. Case studies were briefly presented.

Replication and extended analysis of behavior state, environmental events, and related variables among individuals with profound disabilities.

Knowledge from previous studies pertaining to state behavior of individuals with profound and multiple disabilities and its relation to other environmental and physiological variables was replicated and extended. Behavior state and environmental data were collected over a 5-hour period for most of 66 students with profound disabilities from 21 educational settings. Results showed general consistency in state patterns and profile groupings with previous investigations, a strong relation between different state profiles and measures of development, and consistency of state patterns across CA levels. Transitional probabilities and z scores were used to confirm changes in state behavior of half of the subjects following primarily adult interactions. Results were discussed in relation to theoretical implications and intervention recommendations.

Attractor dimensions of behavior state changes among individuals with profound disabilities.

Accumulating evidence indicates that many physiological and psychological processes behave in nonlinear ways, and some developmental researchers have recommended that behavior states should also be investigated within this framework. We examined state transitions for evidence of nonlinearity among 66 subjects with profound disabilities. States were observed during continuous periods of 5 hours for each subject. Data were analyzed as percentage time subjects spent in various states, influence of environmental variables, and evidence of nonlinear state transitions. Twenty of three subjects demonstrated chaotic state trajectories, but there appeared to be no observed characteristics that differentiated them from other participants. Findings suggest complex behavioral processes in the levels of alertness and responsiveness associated with some individuals with profound disabilities. Implications for other populations and physiological measures were discussed.

Some educational implications for students with profound disabilities at risk for inadequate nutrition and the nontherapeutic effects of medication.

The educational relevance for students with profound disabilities of being at risk for poor nutrition and the potential problems caused by the nontherapeutic effects of some medications were examined, examples of their significance presented, some reasons for their occurrence discussed, and some suggestions for instructional personnel offered. Two classroom-based cases were included that described the resolution of a nutritional and a medication problem, including the role of the teacher and health-related personnel.

Analysis of behavior state conditions and associated environmental variables among students with profound handicaps.

State conditions in combination with environmental events and factors significantly affect the level of alertness and responsiveness among students with profound and multiple handicaps. State conditions and environmental variables over a continuous, 5-hour period for each of 25 students in classroom settings were measured. Data were assessed using transitional probability, time series, and correspondence analysis procedures. Results showed the presence of state sequence patterns, short state change periods, and a relatively small amount of association between specific behavior states and the environmental factors and events measured in the study.

Emergence and maintenance of stereotypy and self-injury.

A three-level model was used to explain the emergence and maintenance of rhythmic stereotypy and self-injury. Level I represents rhythmic behaviors as internally regulated and common in normally developing infants, but delayed in onset among children with handicapping conditions. Consistent with homeostasis theory, Level II considers stereotypy and self-injury as adaptive responses to under- or overstimulating environments. Level III represents stereotypy and self-injury as learned behaviors emitted to control the behavior of others. The model includes fluid transitions between the levels. Implications for assessment intervention and prevention were discussed and further research suggested.

Head-erect behavior among three preschool-aged children with cerebral palsy.

This article presents the results of a multiple baseline design, across subjects, to assess the effect of vibratory stimulation on head-erect behavior in subjects who were prone. The subjects were three children with severe multiple handicaps whose mean age was 2 years 4 months and whose conditions included seizures and muscle tone disorders. Frequency of head lifts and cumulative duration of head-erect behavior were recorded during three-minute sessions with the subjects positioned prone on their forearms over a wedge. After baseline observations were recorded, vibration was applied to the paraspinal muscles of the neck and upper back for the first two minutes of each intervention session. In addition, electromyographic activity was recorded for a three-minute session at least once during both the baseline and intervention conditions. Results of the study demonstrated an increase in the cumulative duration of head-erect behavior for the three subjects and an accompanying increase in EMG activity during muscle vibration. The diversity of handicapping conditions (ie, seizures, hypertonia, and hypotonia) appeared to have no effect on the benefits received from muscle vibration for these subjects. Limitations of the study and implications for future research are discussed.

Development of syntax in a retarded girl using procedures of imitation, reinforcement, and modelling.

Three experiments demonstrated the development and generalized use of a singular and plural declarative sentence in a child initially lacking sentence form responses. In each experiment, an adult(s) served as a language model(s), and consequences (sweets) were provided for imitation of the model. During training trials, an item(s) was displayed first to the model(s) then to the subject; these displays were accompanied by requests to label the item(s). Generalization was assessed by a number of probe trials that were periodically interspersed among training trials. During these trials, the subject was requested to label the displayed item(s) without any preceding labelling response from the model. Using these procedures, generalized use of a singular sentence ("That is one-") resulted in Experiment I, and generalized use of a plural sentence ("These are two-") resulted in Experiment II. In Experiment III, two models (a singular and a plural sentence model) were made available to the subject but imitation of only one model was reinforced during any one condition. Results indicated the subject labelled probe (generalization) items with the same sentence form that was modelled and reinforced during training trials.

An analysis of individual differences in generalization between receptive and productive language in retarded children.

Retarded subjects were taught generative pluralization rules concurrently in both the receptive and productive modalities of language. Receptive training established correct pointing to either one or a pair of objects, in response to a spoken singular or plural label of the object(s); productive training established correct spoken labels of one or a pair of objects presented visually. However, these pluralization rules were established in each modality only for a specific class of plurals: those ending in -s for one modality, those ending in -es for the other modality. This training was successful in establishing generative, or rule-governed behaviors, such that untrained examples of singulars and plurals were usually responded to correctly. Nevertheless, despite this concurrent, generative behavior, probes revealed little generalization between modalities: three of four subjects did not generalize clearly from receptive training with one class of plurals to correct productive use of that class, nor did they generalize from productive training of the other class of plurals to correct receptive response to that class. The fourth subject, however, did show strong generalization of both these types. It was concluded that automatic generalization between receptive and productive language is not necessarily an inevitable result of language training in such subjects, and therefore may require explicit, if temporary, programming, such as by direct reinforcement.

Receptive training of adjectival inflections in mental retardates.

A generalized discrimination of /er/ and /est/ suffixes as labels for stimuli exemplifying comparative or superlative relationships was established in three institutionalized retardates through differential reinforcement. The subjects were first taught correct pointing in response to opposite adjectives (e.g., "big-small") presented as labels for simple visual stimuli, and then taught each of the comparatives, or each of the superlatives possible for those opposites (e.g., "big-bigger" and "small-smaller", or "big-biggest" and "small-smallest"). As training proceeded, novel combinations of the training stimuli were presented as unreinforced probes to display any developing generalization of the training. As training of comparative discrimination proceeded, correct pointing response to comparative probes was high, but correct response to superlative probes was low. When training of superlative discriminations replaced training of comparatives, correct response to superlative probes increased, and correct response to comparative probes remained high.

Improvement of retardates' mealtime behaviors by timeout procedures using multiple baseline techniques.

Undesirable mealtime behaviors of a hospital cottage of retardates were reduced by contingent timeout procedures applied by ward personnel successively to one undesirable behavior after another, in a multiple baseline design. In some cases the timeout procedure was to remove the subject from the room until the meal was finished; in other cases (depending on the health of the child and the initial rate of the behavior to be reduced), timeout consisted of a 15-sec removal of the child's meal tray. Undesirable behaviors were defined as stealing, using fingers inappropriately, messy use of utensils, and pigging (eating directly with mouth or eating spilled food). Timeout was applied to these behaviors in that order, and in each case led to a marked and useful reduction in the behavior throughout the group. As these undesirable behaviors were reduced, more appropriate mealtime behaviors emerged: as inappropriate use of fingers declined (under contingent timeout), messy utensil behavior increased; later, as messy utensil behavior declined (under contingent timeout), a defined category of neat utensil behavior increased. Weights of the subjects were monitored steadily throughout the study and showed essentially no change.