The insemination status and social context influences quail laying and social behavior: A novel experimental set up.

Japanese quails in wild life live in small groups with females being even solitary during the laying period. Although it is a poultry species widely used for egg production, information regarding laying behavior motivations or influencing variables is scarce. Our study focuses on evaluating along 7 d the quail laying behavior in a novel environmental set up. This set up allows the female to choose between remaining separated from a conspecific in one side of the apparatus or to voluntarily enter their space (box-mate side) and interact with it. We evaluated whether the female insemination status prior to enter the environmental set up, and the presence of a female or a male partner in the box-mate side can influence their laying and social behavior. Thus, 4 experimental groups were established. Females spent a higher (P < 0.05) percentage of time in the box-mate side than in their separated sector in all groups. In 3 of the 4 experimental groups (non-inseminated females interacting with a female or a male box-mate, and inseminated females interacting with a male box-mate) females also laid a greater percentage (≥65%, P < 0.05, in all cases) of eggs in the box-mate sector than in their separated sector. However, the group of inseminated females that interacted with a female box-mate shifted their egg distribution and laid equally between both sides of the apparatus. Aggressive social interactions were reduced (P < 0.05) throughout the testing days but this was depending upon the female insemination status and the sex of their box-mate. Findings suggest that females can change their laying side choice when they are inseminated but depending on the sex identity of their box-mate partners. Thus, providing quail female breeders with the option of laying their eggs in separated enclosures from conspecifics could be key to favor their well-being.

Japanese quail classified by their permanence in proximity to a high or low density of conspecifics: a search for underpinning variables.

Test of sociality in poultry is mainly based on the bird's individual ability to make quick social discriminations. In recent years, a density-related permanence (DRP) test has been developed that enables us to classify young birds (while in groups) according to their individual permanence in proximity to either a high or low density of conspecifics (HD or LD, respectively). Thus, the result of the classification depends not only on the bird's individual response but also on the outcome of the social interactions within the whole group. The birds' performance in DRP was associated with underlying differences in social responses of their individuals. Quails in homogeneous groups of LD residents responded with less compact groups and higher levels of agonistic interactions to the presence of an intruder and showed higher levels of agonistic interactions among cage-mates than the homogeneous groups of HD birds. An acute stressor also induced a higher corticosterone response in the LD birds than in their HD counterparts. The present study addressed the question of whether contrasting DRP performance by Japanese quail can also reflect underlying differences in fearfulness and social reinstatement responses. Thus, LD and HD categorized juvenile birds underwent one of the following tests: tonic immobility (TI), open-field (OF), or a one-way runway. Results showed that HD birds required more inductions and developed shorter responses (P ≤ 0.05) in the TI test and walked more, faster, and greater distances in the OF (P ≤ 0.05) than their LD counterparts. No differences between groups were found in short social reinstatement responses. The present findings suggest that underlying fearfulness is lower in the HD than in the LD birds. A reduced fearfulness could be regarded as an additional favorable trait of the HD-classified quail to cope with environmental challenging situations.

Adrenocortical responses in Japanese quail classified by their permanence in proximity to either low or high density of conspecifics.

The density-related permanence test (DRP) is used to classify young birds (while in groups) according to their individual permanence in proximity to either a high or low density of conspecifics (HD or LD, respectively). The birds' performance in DRP was associated with underlying differences in the social responses of their individuals. Quails in homogeneous groups of LD residents responded with less compact groups and higher levels of agonistic interactions to the presence of an intruder, and showed higher levels of agonistic interactions among cagemates than the homogeneous groups of HD birds. This study deepen the characterization of DRP evaluating whether contrasting behavior during test is associated with birds' stress responses to challenging situations during rearing. Plasma corticosterone responses were individually assessed after submitting DRP categorized birds to a brief (10 min) partial restraint (mechanical stressor; experiment 1), or after introducing them during 5 min as intruders in homogeneous groups of 6 unknown same category (HD or LD) conspecifics (social stressor; experiment 2). Experiment 1 showed that basal corticosterone levels were similar in all groups and the partial mechanical restraint induced an increase in plasma corticosterone concentration also in all groups. However, the increase induced by the stressor was higher in the LD birds than in their HD counterparts. In experiment 2, compared to controls, social stressor showed no plasma corticosterone changes in the intruders that were introduced in an unfamiliar group of HD conspecifics. However, intruders (both HD and LD) that were visiting the LD residents showed an increased corticosterone response compared to their control counterparts. Results suggest that categorization of birds in the DRP test could have relevance for selection programs oriented to obtain birds better suited to intensive rearing conditions that includes high density of animals and exposure to unavoidable stressors.

Unexpected results when assessing underlying aggressiveness in Japanese quail using photocastrated stimulus birds.

Aggressive behaviors can affect both animal welfare and productivity. Because the expression of aggressive behaviors is dependent on the quality of the opponent, they reflect relative rather than absolute levels of underlying aggressiveness. This study was aimed to characterize the aggressive responsiveness of photostimulated (14:10 h light:dark photoperiod) adult Japanese quail when interacting with a photocastrated (6:18 h light:dark photoperiod) counterpart in a novel test environment and to assesses interindividual variations. This was based on the assumption that photocastrated birds will not actively provoke an aggressive confrontation. Birds were reared in male-female pairs. Frequencies of behaviors (i.e., pecks, threats, chases, grabs, mounts) were determined during 10 min social interactions in a novel environment. A first experiment evaluated 78 encounters between a photostimulated male or female with either a photocastrated male or female (photocastration of sexually mature birds started at 11 wk of age). High interindividual variability was observed and in general, highly aggressive birds (performing 20 or more aggressive interactions) received little or no aggression from their test counterpart. However, unexpectedly, we also found that 37% and 32% of photocastrated males and females, respectively, performed aggressions toward their photostimulated counterparts, and initiated the aggressive interactions in a similar proportion than photostimulated males. Aggressive photocastrated males did not perform reproductive-type behaviors (i.e., grabs, mounts). Aggressiveness in the photocastrated birds was attributed to their social experience prior to photocastration. Therefore, a second experiment evaluated 106 encounters between a photostimulated male or female and a naive photocastrated male (photocastration started at 4 wk of age, prior to sexual development). Photocastrated males performed no aggressions toward their photostimulated counterparts. Consistently with previous studies, our findings show that naive photocastrated males can be used as a non-aggressive stimulus during a social interaction aimed to assess expression of aggressiveness in photostimulated birds. However, caution should be taken when applying the photocastration protocol considering that prior fighting and sexual experience or other physiological changes related with maturation can interfere during subsequent aggressive testing.

Effects of different types of dark brooders on injurious pecking damage and production-related traits at rear and lay in layers.

Injurious pecking (IP) remains one of the major welfare challenges in housing of laying hens worldwide due to the negative consequences it inflicts on animal welfare and economy. One potential solution to reduce IP is the use of dark brooders as the primary heat source during rearing. The objective was to investigate effects of rearing layer chicks with different management strategies and size allowances of dark brooders on IP and production-related traits during rear and lay. Groups of 100 to 103 Isa Warren chicks were reared either with one of 4 brooder types (n = 4 per treatment) or with whole-house heating (control: n = 6). Brooders were either large (54 cm2/chick) or small (72 cm2/chick) and kept at a fixed height or periodically lifted. Plumage and skin condition were scored at age 6, 16, and 28 weeks. The birds were weighed at age one, 16, and 28 weeks. Data on egg production and mortality were registered daily from wk 16 until 27 wk of age. Minor differences between brooder treatments were found but with no clear trend pointing to a specific brooder treatment being superior. In contrast, major differences in IP damage were found between birds reared with or without brooders. Brooder birds had a better plumage condition throughout the experiment (P < 0.001) and fewer wounds during lay (P < 0.001). Mortality due to cannibalism in the brooder treatments tended to be lower during rear (P = 0.066) and was lower during lay (P < 0.001). There was no treatment effect on body weight on d 7 (P = 0.48). Brooder birds laid fewer floor eggs (P < 0.001) and had higher total egg production (P < 0.001). We conclude that an automatic system lifting the brooders regularly may be skipped, and a size allowance of 54 cm2 per chick is sufficient, leaving the design of brooders simple and cheap. Rearing layer chicks with dark brooders can be a successful method of reducing prevalence of IP and floor eggs, whereby mortality is reduced, leading to improved welfare, egg quality, and production performance.

Divergent cloacal gland photo-responsiveness in male Japanese quail exposed to short days and associated differences in social interactions and reproduction.

Quail under short d (SD) reduce their gonadal development, and consequently their cloacal gland (CG) size, aggressiveness, sexual behaviors, and reproductive performance. However, some quail appear nonresponsive to SD inhibition. When male quail were arbitrarily classified according to their CG involution during maximum photoinhibition (5 wk after SD exposure) as either nonresponsive (NR-SD) or responsive (R-SD), NR-SD quail showed intermediate CG volume between R-SD quail and the control quail kept on long d (C-LD). Herein, we evaluate whether NR-SD and R-SD male Japanese quail differ in their social interactions and reproductive performance while under SD; C-LD males were used as fully reproductive control. First, we assessed over 4 consecutive d, brief (5-min) home cage encounters between individually housed C-LD, NR-SD, or R-SD males and an unfamiliar C-LD male visitor. To determine male reproductive capacity, the following wk, males received the visit (10-min) of a mature female over 3 consecutive days. C-LD, NR-SD, and R-SD resident males showed higher aggressiveness than their photostimulated male visitors, respectively, in 100, 64, and 0% of the studied cases and were also able to, respectively, fertilize 100, 100, and 15% of their female visitors. Second, male-female encounters were again repeated 4 wk later to further assess reproductive performance and behavior. Naive C-LD, NR-SD, and R-SD males also were evaluated to assess potential consequences of the previous male-male interactions on the later performance. The number of males performing aggressive pecks towards females showed a C-LD>NR-SD>R-SD pattern. While mounts, CG contacts, and reproductive capacity showed a C-LD = NR-SD>R-SD pattern, copulatory efficiency exhibited an NR-SD>C-LD = R-SD pattern. Sexual behaviors were not modulated by previous male-male brief social interactions. Findings suggest that NR-SD males are able to breed similarly to their C-LD counterparts, which could be considered an indicator of a reduced reproductive dependence on seasonal photoperiod cues. Differences in the expression of aggressions between NR-SD and C-LD males may underlie the observed NR-SD improved copulatory efficiency when interacting with females.

An individually fitted physical barrier device as a tool to restrict the birds' spatial access: can their use alter behavioral responses?

Social interactions have been extensively studied in poultry in a variety of environmental situations. Many studies allow full social contacts between birds, but there are others in which the interactions are tested through barriers (wire mesh or glass). Thus a situation where, according to their needs, some birds can get access to physical contact with conspecifics while others cannot, would be useful to expand the testing options for social interaction studies. We developed an individual physical barrier device (IPB) that is fitted on the birds to delimit their ambulation areas by preventing them from passing across metal mesh boundaries that IPB free counterparts can easily overcome. The prototypes showing greater efficacy consisted of a small metal bar placed in the bird's back perpendicular to the sagittal plane that slightly exceeds body width, held with a harness fitted by 2 elastic fabric bands around the wings' base. To be useful, the IPB should allow natural movements and not affect the expression of behaviors (non-invasive). This study assessed whether the IPB may alter adult Japanese quail behavioral responses using 4 classical test situations: Open-Field, Runway, Time Budget in Home Box, and Mating Interactions. Open-field ambulatory behaviors were affected 1 h, but not 7 d, after IPB was fitted, suggesting that 7 d (or less) are required to habituate to the device. After that time period, IPB fitted birds showed no differences in any of the behaviors registered in the other 3 tests situations when compared to non IPB fitted birds. Findings suggest that after habituation, the IPB does not affect main behaviors in adult quail. Its application could be expanded if an IPB device is also found suitable for other poultry species.

Social interaction of juvenile Japanese quail classified by their permanence in proximity to a high or low density of conspecifics.

One challenge faced by ethologists in poultry welfare is helping birds to form functionally successful groups over time through the expression of appropriate behaviors. Searching for phenotypic variability, we developed in Japanese quail a density-related permanence (DRP) test that enables us to classify young birds (while in groups) according to their individual permanence in boxes containing a high or low density of confined conspecifics (HD or LD, respectively). This study addressed the question of whether contrasting DRP quail behavior may reflect underlying differences in social responses. Birds were classified at 11 d of age in an apparatus consisting of 2 boxes interconnected by a central region delimited by sliding doors. Each box contained at its distal end either 12 or 3 conspecifics confined behind a glass (high or low density, respectively). The doors were closed 9 times every 1 h, and positioning of 36 experimental birds was registered. If birds were found in the box containing high density, low density, or in the central region, they received a 1, -1, or a 0 score, respectively. Birds with final summed scores of ≥3 or ≤-3 were categorized as HD or LD, respectively. Same category groups (HD or LD) were evaluated in their home box (undisturbed) and in a resident/intruder test when 38 d old. A higher proportion of LD than HD groups (5/6 vs. 1/6, respectively) showed at least one aggressive pecking event during a 1-h trial. The LD groups also showed a higher number of aggressive pecking events than HP groups. When an unfamiliar intruder (either HD or LD) was incorporated during 5 min in the HD or LD box, LD resident quail showed shorter latencies and a higher number of aggressive pecking events toward the intruder bird than their HD counterparts. The early individual permanence in the DRP test could be considered a consequence of a different adaptability strategy for group living. This novel test could be relevant for selection programs aiming to obtain birds better suited for rearing in high-density conditions.

Behavioral responses to short-term transport in male and female Greater Rheas (Rhea americana) reared in captivity.

Animal transport is an indispensable practice in species that need to be moved for management or commercial purposes. However, transport may have negative effects on individuals' welfare. The aims of the present work were to determine if the behavioral responses of adult Greater Rheas (Rhea americana) bred in captivity are sensitive to short-term transport and if males and females differ in their posttransport behavioral activity and recovery. Eight males and 8 females were placed in individual pens and allowed 6 d to habituate (d 1 to 6) before transport procedure. On the transport day (d 7), half of the birds (4 males and 4 females) were randomly assigned to a transport group that was captured and handled to be placed into the crates, exposed to a 30-min transport stressor, and immediately returned to their pens. Four transports with 1 different male and female each time were performed. The other half remained undisturbed and were used as controls. Behavior of all individuals was video-recorded during habituation days, after transport on d 7, and on the 2 following days (d 8 and 9) to evaluate pre- and posttransport behavioral activity for 2 h per day. No significant behavioral changes were observed during the last 2 d of the habituation period (d 5 and 6), suggesting that Greater Rheas were adapted to the housing conditions before transport. After transportation, several behaviors were affected: transported males and females showed null resting, transported females also showed reduced preening and increased vigilance (P < 0.05), whereas transported males showed increased drinking (P < 0.05) compared with their respective control groups. The results suggest that behavioral responses of captive-bred Greater Rheas are sensitive to short-term transport (which includes handling) and that males and females differ in their posttransport behavioral activity, recovering their overall basal levels on the third day posttransportation.

Quantum-correlated two-photon transitions to excitons in semiconductor quantum wells.

The dependence of the excitonic two-photon absorption on the quantum correlations (entanglement) of exciting biphotons by a semiconductor quantum well is studied. We show that entangled photon absorption can display very unusual features depending on space-time-polarization biphoton parameters and absorber density of states for both bound exciton states as well as for unbound electron-hole pairs. We report on the connection between biphoton entanglement, as quantified by the Schmidt number, and absorption by a semiconductor quantum well. Comparison between frequency-anti-correlated, unentangled and frequency-correlated biphoton absorption is addressed. We found that exciton oscillator strengths are highly increased when photons arrive almost simultaneously in an entangled state. Two-photon-absorption becomes a highly sensitive probe of photon quantum correlations when narrow semiconductor quantum wells are used as two-photon absorbers.

Temporal pattern of locomotor activity recuperation after administration of propofol in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica).

The present study evaluates the organization and complexity of the temporal pattern of locomotion after an acute administration of propofol in Japanese quail by using traditional and fractal analysis. Birds were administered with propofol 0, 10, 20, 40 or 80 mg/kg. Ten min after administration, they were placed in an open-field apparatus and their locomotor activity was recorded during 45 min at a resolution of 0.5 s. A significant dose dependant increase in the latency to initiate ambulation was observed for doses of 20, 40 and 80 mg/kg when compared to the control group. A rapid recuperation of normal locomotor activity was observed after sedation with 20 mg/kg. Birds administered with propofol 40 mg/kg showed signs of recuperation of normal locomotion after 30 and 40 min (males and females, respectively) of propofol administration, that was not observed in quail treated with propofol 80 mg/kg. Our results suggest that depending on the dose, propofol administration in quail may allow full locomotor recovery of a sedative/anesthetic dose as early as 30 min post-administration.

Effect of the density of conspecifics on runway social reinstatement behavior of male Japanese quail genetically selected for contrasting adrenocortical responsiveness to stress.

Runway tests are considered indicative of underlying sociality in birds and their ability to make social discriminations and establish interactions among conspecifics. Herein, social reinstatement behavior in male juvenile Japanese quail selected for a reduced (LS, low stress) or exaggerated (HS, high stress) adrenocortical response to brief mechanical restraint was evaluated. Individual males were given the choice to reinstate with either 2 (low density, LD) or 8 (high density, HD) unfamiliar randombred conspecifics placed in goal boxes at opposite ends of a two-choice runway (TCRW). Then, the same males were individually retested in a single goal box runway wherein they were exposed to a goal box containing either a LD or a HD of males. In the TCRW, a higher (P < 0.01) number of HS males started their ambulation toward the goal box containing the HD as opposed to LD of conspecifics. The HS males also spent more (P < 0.01) time in close proximity (within a 10-cm close zone; CZ) to the HD (218 s) rather than LD (57 s) of conspecifics. In contrast, the LS males did not differ in their initial direction of travel and they spent similar average amounts of times in the CZ of their stimulus LD (141 s) and HD (124 s) conspecifics. Similar to the TCRW results, in the single goal box runway, HS males spent more (P < 0.01) time in the CZ of HD rather than LD conspecifics, whereas LS quail spent similar amounts of time in the CZ of LD and HD males. Considering that runways are novel (and therefore frightening) environments, our findings suggest that HS quail may find better shelter (i.e., more comfort) in close proximity to a larger rather than smaller group of conspecifics, whereas LS birds find groups of varying conspecific density equally attractive. The results suggest that LS quail possess favorable social adaptive qualities because they appear to be better suited to cope with situations where the density of conspecifics is variable.

Ontogeny of copulatory behaviour in male Japanese quail classified by their T-maze performance as hatchlings.

1. This study examines the time courses of male mating behaviours using quail that were categorised at 2 d of age as high performance (HP) or low performance (LP) individuals in a T-maze. 2. Individually caged males from each T-maze category were observed for 5 min after a female of the same category (HP or LP) was introduced into their home cages as a sexual partner at 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 and 12 weeks of age. The number of grabs, mounts and cloacal contacts performed by each male and his copulatory efficiency (number of cloacal contacts/number of grabs; CE) were determined at each time interval. 3. No differences were observed in the proportion of HP and LP males performing grabs at any of the ages evaluated. However, a greater proportion of HP males showed mounting and cloacal contact behaviour, coupled with a higher CE than did their LP counterparts at 5 and 6, 6 and 8, and 8 weeks of age, respectively. At those ages, a higher mean number of mounts and cloacal contacts were also observed. No significant sexual behaviour differences between HP and LP quail were observed at 10 and 12 weeks of age. 4. The results suggest that rapid negotiation of the T-maze in hatchlings is associated with accelerated puberty in male quail. The differential reproductive behaviour of HP males during the development of puberty does not remain extant in fully developed quail. 5. The finding of accelerated male developmental sexual activity responses in HP quail indicates that selection for T-maze HP behaviour may allow males to be successfully bred at an earlier age.

Ontogeny of the cloacal gland in male Japanese quail classified in a T-maze.

Broiler chicks that traverse a T-maze quickly to reinstate contact with their companions (HP, high performers) are known to grow faster, are more social, and have a reduced plasma corticosterone response to acute stress than slower chicks (LP, low performers). High-performing quail from a line selected for reduced rather than exaggerated (high-stress) adrenocortical stress responsiveness also show enhanced female reproductive performance when compared with LP-high-stress quail. Herein, time courses of male sexual development were evaluated in genetically unremarkable quail that were categorized at 2 d of age as HP or LP in the T-maze. Body weight, cloacal gland volume (CVOL), proportion of individuals that produced cloacal gland foam, intensity of foam production, and CVOL relative to BW (RCVOL) were determined weekly from 4 to 10 wk of age, and again at 22 wk, along with absolute and BW-adjusted testes weight. Although CVOL and RCVOL were initially similar in both T-maze groups, both variables were greater (P < 0.05) in HP than in LP quail between 6 and 10 wk of age. High-performing birds also showed a trend (P < 0.1) of greater cloacal gland foam than their LP counterparts from 5 to 7 wk. From 8 wk on, all birds were in foam production. Intensity of foam production results generally mimicked those found for CVOL and RCVOL. Body weights were higher (P < 0.05) in HP than LP quail from 5 to 7 wk. No T-maze group differences were found in any of the variables at 22 wk of age. The results suggest that rapid negotiation of the T-maze is associated with accelerated growth and puberty in male quail, although the enhanced reproductive development of HP males does not remain extant in aged adults.

Behavioural measures in frontotemporal lobar dementia and other dementias: the utility of the frontal behavioural inventory and the neuropsychiatric inventory in a national cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Distinguishing between patients with frontotemporal lobar dementia (FTLD) and other dementing illnesses remains a difficult task for many clinicians. In this study, we aimed to provide further evidence for the construct validity of the frontal behavioural inventory (FBI) and assess its utility in differentiating FTLD patients from other groups using data from the Canadian Collaborative Cohort of Related Dementias (ACCORD) study. METHOD: Baseline scores on the FBI and neuropsychiatric inventory (NPI) were compared among several clinical groups (n = 177). RESULTS: The FBI discriminated a higher percentage of FTLD patients (>75% correct classification) from Alzheimer's disease and other groups compared to the NPI (54.2%). CONCLUSION: This study provides good evidence for convergent validity between the FBI and NPI (r = 0.72), indicating that both measures capture similar psychopathology in this nationwide cohort.

A Canadian cohort study of cognitive impairment and related dementias (ACCORD): study methods and baseline results.

The overall objective of the Canadian Collaborative Cohort of Related Dementias (ACCORD) study is to describe the diagnostic distribution, natural history and treatment outcomes of individuals referred from the community to dementia clinics in Canada. Between 1997 and 1999, an inception cohort of 1,136 subjects entered into this longitudinal study. At the baseline assessment, 10.9% of the subjects were classified as "not cognitively impaired" (NCI), 30.1% as "cognitively impaired not demented" (CIND), and 59% as demented. A subclassification of CIND included amnestic 25.1%, vascular cognitive impairment 18.1%, psychiatric 17.2%, neurologic 7.3%, medical/toxic metabolic 3.5%, mixed 7.6% and not specified 19.0%. The percentage of the cohort referred with dementia increased progressively each decade, while the proportions of CIND and NCI decreased. Within the dementia group, Alzheimer's disease accounted for 47.2% of the subjects, mixed dementias 33.7%, vascular dementia 8.7%, frontotemporal degenerations 5.4%, dementia with Lewy bodies 2.5%, and unclassifiable 1.8%. The ACCORD cohort will allow a detailed study of the longitudinal course of CIND, and the longer-term outcomes of both treated and untreated dementia subjects.

The effect of the living situation on the severity of dementia at diagnosis.

INTRODUCTION: Previous studies have shown that social determinants not directly involved in the disease process may be implicated in the timing of dementia diagnosis. This study explores the relationship between a patient's living situation and the severity of dementia at diagnosis. METHODS: Data were collected from the baseline interviews of 1,325 patients with cognitive decline enrolled in the Consortium for the Investigation of Vascular Impairment of Cognition study. Data collected included: age, sex, living situation and scores on the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Global Deterioration Scale (GDS), the Functional Rating Scale (FRS), the Disability Assessment for Dementia (DAD) scale and the Cumulative Illness Rating Scale (CIRS). Living situation was grouped as: (1) lives alone, (2) lives with spouse, (3) lives with child, relative or other and (4) lives in a nursing home. A general linear model univariate analysis was used to compare patients by their respective living situations for differences in mean scores on each of the 4 measures of dementia severity. RESULTS: Statistical analysis of both unadjusted data and data adjusted for age, sex and CIRS scores showed significant differences among the groups. Those who lived alone were diagnosed at an earlier stage (mean scores: MMSE 21.4, GDS 3.6, FRS 20.0, DAD 29.8) followed by those who lived with a spouse (mean scores: MMSE 20.5, GDS 3.7, FRS 20.4, DAD 28.0), those who lived with a child or other (mean scores: MMSE 19.3, GDS 3.9, FRS 22.5, DAD 24.9) and finally those who lived in a nursing home (mean scores: MMSE 15.2, GDS 4.8, FRS 27.5, DAD 16.9). CONCLUSION: Living situation is related to the severity of dementia at diagnosis. Primary care providers should have a low threshold for case-finding in older adults who live with family or friends.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: effects of hypoxia on neurological and neuropsychological measures.

Eighteen patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) were administered a series of pulmonary, neurological, and neuropsychological measures to test if there was an effect of COPD on neurological and cognitive functioning. Overall, there was no evidence of general dementia in this sample. Measures of immediate and delayed memory, complex attention, and speed of information processing correlated highly with arterial carbon dioxide partial pressure and, to a lesser extent, with oxygen partial pressure. Measures of language abilities, perceptual-motor functioning, and simple attention generally were not related to arterial gas pressures. A similar pattern of findings was obtained when group differences were examined between participants classified as severely hypoxic or mildly hypoxic, although group differences were mitigated by premorbid IQ differences. Hypoxia in COPD results in a relatively focused pattern of impairment in measures of memory function and tasks requiring attention allocation. The memory dysfunction may be related to involvement of limbic memory regions necessary for explicit memory. The attentional deficits were attributed to diffuse brain involvement resulting in reduced resource allocation. Early diagnosis and treatment of the hypoxia is essential.

Do long tests yield a more accurate diagnosis of dementia than short tests? A comparison of 5 neuropsychological tests.

OBJECTIVE: To provide comparative evidence for a valid and practical measure of mental-status functioning that could be used in dementia clinics. DESIGN: Five mental-status neuropsychological tools for dementia screening were administered to patients in a memory disorder clinic. These included the Mini-Mental State Examination, the Dementia Rating Scale, the 6-item derivative of the Orientation-Memory-Concentration Test, a short Mental Status Questionnaire, and a composite tool we labeled the Ottawa Mental Status Examination, which assessed orientation, memory, attention, language, and visual-constructive functioning. The tools were compared using various criteria, including the statistical factors of sensitivity and reliability; effects of gender, native language, and language of testing; the utility of these tests for the differential diagnosis of Alzheimer-type and vascular dementia; and sensitivity to cognitive decline in the entire sample and among patients with severe dementia. RESULTS: All of the tests were highly intercorrelated, suggesting that they are interchangeable. CONCLUSION: The comparisons along the various criteria indicate that if the objective is to have a general index of dementia of the Alzheimer type, short tests are at least as good and sometimes better than the longer tests.

Diagnosis of dementia. Methods for interpretation of scores of 5 neuropsychological tests.

OBJECTIVE: To provide methods to interpret and compare different neurobehavioral screening tests for the diagnosis of dementia. DESIGN: Five mental-status neuropsychological tools for dementia screening were administered to patients in a memory disorder clinic. These included the Mini-Mental State Examination, the Dementia Rating Scale, the 6-item derivative of the Orientation-memory-Concentration Test, a short Mental Status Questionnaire, and a composite tool we labeled the Ottawa Mental Status Examination, which assessed orientation, memory, attention, language, and visual-constructive functioning. RESULTS: To obtain z and percentile scores, norms are for the different tests, computed separately for patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type, vascular dementia, or no dementia. Another set of norms is reported in which a test score is translated directly into the posttest probability of dementia. Translation formulas are given to allow the estimation of the score on one test from the result on another test. CONCLUSION: The interpretation of tests used to diagnose dementia must be based on an understanding of the meaning of an individual score, which is based on the question asked and the population to which the patient is referenced.