Friendships, femininity, and reaction to affective arousal.

This study examined relations between college women's scores on femininity and their same-sex friendships and how these women's perceptions were influenced by induction of success or failure. 200 undergraduate women described themselves and their best friends on the dominance and submissiveness scales of the Interpersonal Adjective Scales and also completed the Behavioral Self-report of Femininity and a biographical information sheet. Mean ratings of dominance were above average both for self and best-friend ratings, but these two dominance ratings were not significantly correlated. However, women viewed themselves as similar to their best friends on submissiveness characteristics. Highly feminine women described themselves as more dominant than less feminine women. Highly feminine women also experienced less anxiety and fatigue as measured by the Profile of Mood States in response to failure induction than less feminine women. Both sets of results are contrary to expectations, but the behavioral definition of femininity was different from that used earlier.

MMPI differences among adolescent inpatients, rapists, sodomists, and sexual abusers.

This study examined Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) responding among 61 adolescent sex offenders accused of Sexual Abuse (n = 22), Rape (n = 19), and Sodomy (n = 18) and 15 adolescents without a history of sexual offending admitted to an inpatient psychiatric unit. Results indicated significant differences between sex offenders and inpatients as well as among sex offender groups on both single-scale elevations and 2-point code types. Contrary to previous research, adolescents in the sex offender groups demonstrated significantly more psychopathology than those in the inpatient sample. Subjects in the Sodomy group achieved the highest clinical scale elevations and were more likely to have scales associated with significant psychopathology as one of their 2-point pairs. In general, increased psychopathology was associated with increased sexual deviancy. That is, subjects in the sexual offender groups evidenced more psychopathology than inpatients and the more deviant Sodomy and Rape groups evidenced more psychological disturbance on the MMPI than Sexual Abuser subjects. Results indicate that the MMPI can be useful in providing both quantitative and qualitative distinctions among adolescent sex offenders.

Blue versus periwinkle: color identification and gender.

This study examined the color identification and vocabulary skills of 101 female and 52 male college students. Femininity scores, color-related hobbies, and academic aptitude scores were also examined for their influence on color identification. The women identified significantly more elaborate colors than did the men. Color identification was significantly correlated with vocabulary but not with scores on femininity. Academic aptitude scores and having a color-related hobby also predicted color identification under some conditions.

Another femininity scale?

The construction and validation of the Behavioral Self-report of Femininity is described. An initial sample of 32 male and 63 female undergraduates indicated the frequency of engaging in 91 "feminine" behaviors. The 59 items which showed good internal consistency as well as differentiation between genders were retained. Test-retest reliability over a 2-wk. period was .90. Convergent and discriminant validities were examined by comparing our results with those obtained from the Hyperfemininity Scale and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. Responses of women in traditional and nontraditional majors were significantly different, indicating good within-sex validity. Finally, a principal components analysis identified six primary factors, accounting for 60% of common variance.

Perceptions of MMPI item subtlety: influences of age and ethnicity.

This study examined the influences of age and ethnicity on perceived item subtlety in Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Scales F and 9. One hundred twenty-one male adolescents (67 White, 54 Black) rated the items composing these scales in terms of their relationship to a psychological problem. The mean item ratings and subsequent subtle-obvious classifications were then compared to established ratings obtained from adults (Christian, Burkhart, & Gynther, 1978; Wiener, 1948). Results indicated significant differences in both item ratings and classifications between adolescents and adults on Scales F and 9. Significant differences between Black and White adolescents were found on Scale F but not on Scale 9, even when differences in verbal-comprehension abilities between groups were considered. These results suggest that it may be inappropriate to use current subtle-obvious keys with adolescents and minorities.

Male perceptions of female attractiveness: the effects of targets' personal attributes and subjects' degree of masculinity.

This study examined the relationship between the degree of sexist beliefs held toward women by male subjects and their perceptions of attractiveness of females described as possessing either masculine or feminine personality characteristics. One hundred twenty-two undergraduate males were given the Macho Scale, the Auburn University Personal Behavior Summary, a biodata sheet, and were asked to judge previously rated photographs of women along a dimension of attractiveness. Results demonstrated that males perceived physically unattractive and average females described as affectionate and compassionate as more attractive than similarly rated females described as independent and assertive. High Macho subjects viewed females as less attractive than low Macho subjects. Physical attractiveness of the male subjects was largely unrelated to their ratings of the females.

Teachers' implicit "theories" of children's intelligence.

Information about teachers' implicit notions of children's intelligence was obtained by having 50 student-teachers and 79 teachers with 1 to 4 years of experience rate 150 descriptors on applicability to an hypothetical child described as above average, average, or below average in intellectual functioning. Each teacher-subject was classified by dogmatism score and by years of teaching experience. A factor analysis disclosed that Academic Skills and Interpersonal Competencies summarize the implicit notions. Analysis of variance showed that all levels of hypothesized intelligence only affected teachers' expectations of academic skills and that the effect of intelligence was dependent upon the teachers' dogmatism. There were no clear-cut findings associated with years of experience. Results supported previous observations that people have implicit "theories" of intelligence; however, the specific composition of their ideas varies according to the context within which the rater and the person observed are placed.

The perception of attractiveness: what about the beholders?

This study asked whether there is a relationship between heterosexually relevant dimensions and perception of female attractiveness and femininity. Two hundred and forty-nine undergraduate males rated 22 photographs of young women on these two dimensions. Seventy-nine of these subjects also took the Macho Scale, the Survey of Heterosexual Interactions, and the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Results showed that high Macho subjects viewed most of the photographed women as less attractive than low Macho subjects did. Masculinity/femininity and heterosexual anxiety showed less of a relationship. As predicted, moderately attractive women were described most differently by the high Macho/low Macho raters.

MMPI item subtlety: familiar vs unfamiliar constructs.

This research was designed to clarify several issues surrounding the assessment of MMPI item subtlety. Experiment 1 asked 30 college undergraduates to define hysteria and paranoia. Results showed that 17% of the descriptions given for hysteria agreed with professional definitions, while 58% of the descriptions given for paranoia were accurate. Experiment 2 had 60 other college students rate Hy and Pa items on a subtle-obvious dimension with half the subjects receiving short definitions of the construct and half long definitions. Results showed that the additional descriptors had little effect on the classification of items as subtle, neutral or obvious regardless of scale. Correlation between these ratings derived from the scale-specific format and those obtained from a general psychopathology point of view were in the .70's for both Hy and Pa. The less familiar Hy items were significantly differentiated from Christian et al.'s (1978) ratings while the more familiar Pa items were not. How subtlety should be defined depends on the questions being asked.

Have MMPI MF scale correlates changed in the past 30 years?

This study was designed to investigate whether behavioral correlates of the MMPI Masculinity-Femininity (MF) scale are similar to or different from those established in the 1950s, given the many social and cultural changes that have taken place since then. There were 306 participants in the study, 102 target subjects (51 males, 51 females) and 204 same-sex friends. The former were administered the first 399 items of the MMPI, the Interpersonal Adjective Scale (IAS), and other questionnaires. The friends described each subject on the IAS. Low MF females were rated by themselves and their peers as tender and emotional, whereas high MF females considered themselves exploitative and self-confident and were rated as bold and unsympathetic by their peers. Low MF males described themselves as domineering and impersonal and were described by their peers as well-mannered. High MFs saw themselves as undemanding and shy and were perceived as emotional by their peers. It appears that the behavioral correlates established a generation ago are still valid today, at least for college students.

MMPI item subtlety: another look.

This study examined the item subtlety-face validity issue by comparing MMPI Depression scale items rated in terms of psychopathology-in-general vs. specific depression criteria. The study also evaluated the influence of number of definitional descriptors and the meaning attributed to the neutral rating. Results showed substantial correlations among ratings obtained by different procedures, but many differences in subtle-neutral-obvious classifications. Number of descriptors did not effect ratings, although these results might not be found for less familiar constructs. Most raters took "neutral" to mean unrelated. These findings suggest that the inconsistencies in this research area are related to definitional problems and methodological ambiguities.

The prediction of paranoid behavior: comparative validities of obvious vs. subtle MMPI Paranoia (Pa) items.

Assessed the relations among the obvious, neutral, and subtle MMPI Paranoia (PA) subscale scores and criteria that consisted of Mehrabian's Stimulus Screening Scale, Rotter's Interpersonal Trust Scale, a Paranoia Questionnaire, the Einstellung Test, and an unobtrusive measure of personalization. Male college students served as Ss (N = 100). The obvious PA subscale was found to be correlated significantly with Mehrabian's Stimulus Screening Scale, Rotter's Interpersonal Trust Scale (in a negative direction), and the Paranoia Questionnaire. The neutral PA subscale was related significantly to Mehrabian's Stimulus Screening Scale, Rotter's Interpersonal Trust Scale (also in a negative direction), and, at a trend level, the Einstellung Test. The subtle subscale correlated with Rotter's Interpersonal Trust Scale (in a positive direction) and an unobtrusive measure of personalization. Correlations among the criteria themselves were generally insignificant, but the relationships found supported the use of the paranoia criteria as measures of the intended construct.

The relative predictive validity of subtle vs. obvious items on the MMPI Depression scale.

To assess the relative predictive validity of subtle and obvious items on the MMPI Depression scale, obvious, neutral, and subtle subscales were formed and used to predict several criterion measures of depression; these included the Beck Depression Inventory, the Depression subscale of the Profile of Mood States, and the Pleasant Events Schedule (N = 209). In general, obvious items were good predictors of all criteria, neutral items overlapped considerably with obvious items, and subtle items generally did not contribute uniquely to the prediction of any of the concurrent measures of depression.

The prediction of impulsive behavior: comparative validities of obvious vs. subtle MMPI hypomania (MA) items.

Assessed the relative predictive validity of obvious (0), neutral (N), and subtle (S) items of the MMPI Ma scale (N = 86 males). Subtle-obvious ratings were compared to criteria in the three types of measurement delineated by Cattell, namely, questionnaire, life-history, and objective tests. Ma-O was correlated positively with the Experience Seeking factor of the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) as well as time taken and errors on the Porteus Maze, while Ma-S was correlated positively with the Thrill and Adventure Seeking factor of the SSS and the biographic questionnaire. Ma-N, on the other hand, was not related to any criteria. Because the correlations among the criteria themselves were generally insignificant, it was suggested that hypomania is not a homogeneous construct.

Item subtletly and faking on the MMPI: a paradoxical relationship.

The X-zero distinction has been used as the operational definition of MMPI item subtlety in previous research. A consistent finding has been that the X items, which are obvious in terms of pathological content, can be faked whereas the more subtle zero items cannot be faked. The present study examined the relationship between instructional sets and endorsement patterns, using a more refined, comprehensive measure of item subtlety. Sixty (30 male, 30 female) subjects completed two MMPI protocols, one under a standard instructional set and the other under either a fake-good or fake-bad response set. Order of administration and sex were counterbalanced. In general, the findings for the sublte-obvious dimension paralleled the previous findings with the X-zero distinction. Endorsement of obvious items was a direct function of instructional set, whereas endorsement of sublte items was inversely related to instructional set. Because subtle items did not appear to measure the constructs for which they had been originally intended, other uses for subtle items were discussed.

Psychological mindedness, intelligence, and item subtlety endorsement patterns on the MMPI.

Investigated the relationship between psychological mindedness (measured by the Psychological Mindedness [Py] scale of the California Psychological Inventory [CPI]), intelligence (estimated by American College Test [act] scores), and item subtlety endorsement patterns of Ss asked to answer the MMPI under standard, fake-good, and fake-bad response sets. Male (N equal to 30) and female (N equal to 30) undergraduate students completed the Py scale and two MMPI protocols--one under standard test-taking instructions and the other under either a fake-good or a fake-bad set with order of administration and sex counterbalanced. Under the standard response set, Ss who scored high on the CPI-Py endorsed more very subtle and somewhat subtle items and fewer neutral, somewhat obvious, and very obvious items than Ss who scored low on this scale. Intellectual ability was not related to the endorsement of subtle or obvious items under standard or fake-good response sets. Under instructions to fake-bad, more intelligent individuals endorsed fewer somewhat subtle items and more very obvious items than less intelligent individuals. These results were discussed in reference to the utility of subtle items as unobstrusive measures of personality or as indicators of certain response sets.