Metabolism and mode of action of cis- and trans-3-pinanones (the active ingredients of hyssop oil).

1. Hyssop oil is an important food additive and herbal medicine and the principal active ingredients are (-)-cis- and (-)-trans-3-pinanones. No information is available on their metabolism or specific mode of action. 2. The metabolites of cis- and trans-3-pinanones were examined from mouse and human liver microsomes and human recombinant P4503A4 with NADPH and on administration to mouse by gas chromatography/chemical ionization mass spectrometry comparison with standards from synthesis. 3. The major metabolite of cis-3-pinanone in each P450 system and in brain of the i.p.-treated mouse in quantitative studies was 2-hydroxy-cis-3-pinanone, and two minor metabolites were hydroxypinanones other than 2-hydroxy-trans-3-pinanone and 4S-hydroxy-cis-3-pinanone. The urine from oral cis-3-pinanone treatment examined on a qualitative basis contained conjugates of metabolites observed in the microsomal systems plus 2,10-dehydro-3-pinanone. 4. Trans-3-pinanone was metabolized more slowly than the cis-isomer in each system to give hydroxy derivatives different than those derived from cis-3-pinanone. 5. Cis- and trans-3-pinanones and hyssop oil act as gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor antagonists based on inhibition of 4'-ethynyl-4-n-[2,3-(3)H(2)]propylbicycloorthobenzoate ([(3)H]EBOB) binding in mouse brain membranes (IC(50) of 35-64 microM) and supported by tonic/clonic convulsions in mouse (i.p. LD(50) 175 to >250 mg kg(-1)) alleviated by diazepam. The cis-3-pinanone metabolites 2-hydroxy-cis-3-pinanone and 2,10-dehydro-3-pinanone exhibit reduced toxicity and potency for inhibition of [(3)H]EBOB binding.

Detoxification of alpha- and beta-Thujones (the active ingredients of absinthe): site specificity and species differences in cytochrome P450 oxidation in vitro and in vivo.

Alpha- and beta-Thujones are active ingredients in the liqueur absinthe and in herbal medicines and seasonings for food and drinks. Our earlier study established that they are convulsants and have insecticidal activity, acting as noncompetitive blockers of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-gated chloride channel, and identified 7-hydroxy-alpha-thujone as the major metabolite and 4-hydroxy-alpha- and -beta-thujones and 7,8-dehydro-alpha-thujone as minor metabolites in the mouse liver microsome-NADPH system. We report here unexpected site specificity and species differences in the metabolism of the thujone diastereomers in mouse, rat, and human liver microsomes and human recombinant P450 (P450 3A4), in orally treated mice and rats, and in Drosophila melanogaster. Major differences are apparent on comparing in vitro microsome-NADPH systems and in vivo urinary metabolites. Hydroxylation at the 2-position is observed only in mice where conjugated 2R-hydroxy-alpha-thujone is the major urinary metabolite of alpha-thujone. Hydroxylation at the 4-position gives one or both of 4-hydroxy-alpha- and -beta-thujones depending on the diastereomer and species studied with conjugated 4-hydroxy-alpha-thujone as the major urinary metabolite of alpha- and beta-thujones in rats. Hydroxylation at the 7-position of alpha- and beta-thujones is always a major pathway, but the conjugated urinary metabolite is minor except with beta-thujone in the mouse. Site specificity in glucuronidation favors excretion of 2R-hydroxy- and 4-hydroxy-alpha-thujone glucuronides rather than those of three other hydroxythujones. Two dehydro metabolites are observed from both alpha- and beta-thujones, the 7,8 in the P450 systems and the 4,10 in urine. Two types of evidence establish that P450-dependent oxidations of alpha- and beta-thujones are detoxification reactions: three P450 inhibitors block the metabolism of alpha- and beta-thujones and strongly synergize their toxicity in Drosophila; six metabolites assayed are less potent than alpha- and beta-thujones as inhibitors of [(3)H]ethynylbicycloorthobenzoate binding to the GABA(A) receptor in mouse brain membranes and as toxicants to Drosophila.

alpha- and beta-Thujones (herbal medicines and food additives): synthesis and analysis of hydroxy and dehydro metabolites.

Essential oils containing alpha- and beta-thujones are important herbal medicines and food additives. The thujone diastereomers are rapidly metabolized convulsants acting as noncompetitive blockers of the gamma-aminobutyric acid-gated chloride channel. Synthesis and analysis of the metabolites are essential steps in understanding their health effects. Oxidation of alpha- and beta-thujones as their 2,3-enolates with oxodiperoxymolybdenum(pyridine)(hexamethylphosphoric triamide) gave the corresponding (2R)-2-hydroxythujones assigned by (1)H and (13)C NMR and X-ray crystallography. alpha-Thujone was converted to 4-hydroxy-alpha- and -beta-thujones via the 3,4-enol acetate on oxidation with peracid and osmium tetroxide, respectively. Ozonation provided 7-hydroxy-alpha- and -beta-thujones, and by dehydration provided the 7,8-dehydro compounds. 4,10-Dehydrothujone was prepared from sabinene via sabinol. The hydroxy and dehydro derivatives are readily identified and analyzed by GC/MS as the parent compounds and trimethylsilyl and methyloxime derivatives. A separate study established that all of these compounds are metabolites of alpha- and beta-thujones.

Alpha-thujone (the active component of absinthe): gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification.

Alpha-thujone is the toxic agent in absinthe, a liqueur popular in the 19th and early 20th centuries that has adverse health effects. It is also the active ingredient of wormwood oil and some other herbal medicines and is reported to have antinociceptive, insecticidal, and anthelmintic activity. This study elucidates the mechanism of alpha-thujone neurotoxicity and identifies its major metabolites and their role in the poisoning process. Four observations establish that alpha-thujone is a modulator of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type A receptor. First, the poisoning signs (and their alleviation by diazepam and phenobarbital) in mice are similar to those of the classical antagonist picrotoxinin. Second, a strain of Drosophila specifically resistant to chloride channel blockers is also tolerant to alpha-thujone. Third, alpha-thujone is a competitive inhibitor of [(3)H]ethynylbicycloorthobenzoate binding to mouse brain membranes. Most definitively, GABA-induced peak currents in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons are suppressed by alpha-thujone with complete reversal after washout. alpha-Thujone is quickly metabolized in vitro by mouse liver microsomes with NADPH (cytochrome P450) forming 7-hydroxy-alpha-thujone as the major product plus five minor ones (4-hydroxy-alpha-thujone, 4-hydroxy-beta-thujone, two other hydroxythujones, and 7,8-dehydro-alpha-thujone), several of which also are detected in the brain of mice treated i.p. with alpha-thujone. The major 7-hydroxy metabolite attains much higher brain levels than alpha-thujone but is less toxic to mice and Drosophila and less potent in the binding assay. The other metabolites assayed are also detoxification products. Thus, alpha-thujone in absinthe and herbal medicines is a rapid-acting and readily detoxified modulator of the GABA-gated chloride channel.

Drug testing with alternative matrices II. Mechanisms of cocaine and codeine deposition in hair.

A 10-week inpatient study was performed to evaluate cocaine, codeine, and metabolite disposition in biological matrices collected from volunteers. An initial report described drug disposition in plasma, sebum, and stratum corneum collected from five African-American males. This report focuses on drug disposition in hair and sweat collected from the same five subjects. Following a three-week washout period, three doses of cocaine HCl (75 mg/70 kg, subcutaneous) and three doses of codeine SO4 (60 mg/70 kg, oral) were administered on alternating days in week 4 (low-dose week). The same dosing sequence was repeated in week 8 with doubled doses (high-dose week). Hair was collected by shaving the entire scalp once each week. Hair from the anterior vertex was divided into two portions. One portion was washed with isopropanol and phosphate buffer; the other portion was not washed. Hair was enzymatically digested, samples were centrifuged, and the supernatant was collected. Sweat was collected periodically by placing PharmChek sweat patches on the torso. Drugs were extracted from sweat patches with methanol/0.2 M sodium acetate buffer (75:25, v/v). Supernatants from hair digests, hair washes, and sweat patch extracts were processed by solid-phase extraction followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis for cocaine, codeine, 6-acetylmorphine, and metabolites. Cocaine and codeine were the primary analytes identified in sweat patches and hair. Drugs were detected in sweat within 8 h after dosing, and drug secretion primarily occurred within 24 h after dosing. No clear relationship was observed between dose and drug concentrations in sweat. Drug incorporation into hair appeared to be dose-dependent. Drugs were detected in hair within 1-3 days after the last drug administration; peak drug concentrations generally occurred in the following 1-2 weeks; thereafter, drug concentrations decreased. Solvent washes removed 50-55% of cocaine and codeine from hair collected 1-3 days after the last drug dose. These data may reflect removal of drug that was deposited by sweat shortly after dosing. Drug removed by washing hair collected 1-3 weeks after the last dose was minimal for cocaine but variable for codeine. Drug in these specimens was likely transferred from blood to germinative hair cells followed by emergence of drug in growing hair. These findings suggest that drug deposition in hair occurs by multiple mechanisms.

Detection of nandrolone, testosterone, and their esters in rat and human hair samples.

Nandrolone and testosterone are anabolic androgenic steroids occasionally abused by athletes. A sensitive, specific, and reproducible gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method for the quantitative determination of nandrolone, testosterone, and their esters in hair has been developed. The limits of quantitation of this method, based on 20 mg of hair, were 50 pg/mg for nandrolone and testosterone, 100 pg/mg for testosterone acetate, and 200 pg/mg for nandrolone-decanoate. Nandrolone-d3 and testosterone-d3 were used as internal standards. This method has been applied to the analysis of these compounds incorporated into rat and human hair. Male Long-Evans rats were given nandrolone decanoate 60 mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.) once daily for 10 days over a time period of 14 days. Two of the three rats contained nandrolone in the pigmented hair collected at day 21 at a concentration of 63 and 76 pg/mg, respectively. No drug was found in the corresponding nonpigmented hair. The rat hair samples that tested positive for nandrolone contained also nandrolone decanoate in concentrations of 0.9 and 1.2 ng/mg, respectively. In a separate experiment rats were given testosterone acetate 10 mg/kg i.p. once daily for five days. No testosterone or testosterone acetate was detected in the rat hair samples. Hair specimens were also obtained from four self-reported steroid users. The hair of two subjects were determined to be positive for testosterone in concentrations of 54 and 81 pg/mg. These data demonstrate that it is possible to detect the steroids nandrolone, testosterone, and nandrolone decanoate in hair after systemic administration.

Quantitation of cocaine in human hair: the effect of centrifugation of hair digests.

Hair pigmentation is a critical factor in the interpretation of the concentration of certain compounds and their metabolites incorporated into hair. Melanin is responsible for the pigmentation. The color and the melanin content of human hair samples differs over a wide range. Once deposited into hair, drug may remain detectable for a period of months to years. However, if drug disposition into hair is influenced by those properties attributed to hair color, then certain persons may test positive more frequently than other persons. Removal of the melanin from hair digests prior to drug analysis may reduce the effect of melanin on the total drug concentration by excluding the drug bound to the pigment. In this study, the effect of melanin removal by centrifugation of hair digests on cocaine concentrations was investigated. Two sets of hair samples from five cocaine users were analyzed for cocaine and metabolites. A solution consisting of 10 mL of 0.5M Tris buffer (pH 6.4) to which is added 60 mg D,L-dithiothreitol, 200 mg SDS, and 200 U Proteinase K, was used to digest the hair. Two milliliters of this solution was added to 20 mg of hair and incubated at 37 degrees in a shaking water bath (90 oscillations/min) overnight. The samples were removed from the water bath and mixed. One set was centrifuged at 2000 rpm and divided into supernatant and melanin pellet. The other set was not centrifuged. Internal standards were added to all tubes. The samples were further extracted, derivatized, and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. A mean of 8.8% (standard deviation [SD] 7.0%) of the total cocaine concentration (supernatant and pellet) was left behind in the pellet. The same experiment was repeated except that the melanin pellet was redigested with 0.1 N HCl. After redigestion of the melanin pellet, the mean cocaine concentration in the pellet was 3.8% +/- 4.0% (mean +/- SD) of the total cocaine concentration in hair. These data demonstrate that removal of melanin from hair digests by centrifugation does not eliminate hair color bias when interpreting cocaine concentrations.

Simultaneous quantitation of cocaine, opiates, and their metabolites in human hair by positive ion chemical ionization gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

A sensitive method is developed for the combined extraction of cocaine (COC), cocaethylene (CE), benzoylecgonine (BE), ecgonine methyl ester (EME), norcocaine (NORCOC), 6-acetylmorphine (6-MAM), codeine (COD), norcodeine (NORCOD), morphine (MOR), and normorphine (NORMOR) from human head hair using an enzyme-based digestion technique (Protease VIII/DTT/Tris-buffer pH 6.5 at 22 degrees C). After pH adjustment to 5.5, the digests are extracted with a solid-phase extraction procedure using Bond-Elut Certify columns. The extract residues are evaporated at 40 degrees C, reconstituted in 20 microL of ethyl acetate, and derivatized with the reagents N-methyl-N-trimethylsilylheptafluorobutyramide (MSHFBA), N-methyl-bis-heptafluorobutyramide (MBHFBA), and N-trimethylsilylimidazole (TMSIM). Analyses are performed by positive ion chemical ionization gas chromatography-mass spectrometry using a DB-1 capillary column. Two injections are performed on each extract to optimize sensitivity for all analytes. The assay is capable of reliably quantitating 500 pg/mg of all compounds and is linear to 50 ng/mg, except for BE, which is linear to 25.0 ng/mg. The method was used to analyze human hair samples obtained from cocaine and heroin users. COC, BE, and EME are detectable in all samples, whereas NORCOC, CE, COD, 6-MAM, and MOR are detected in only some samples. Norcodeine and normorphine are not detected. The assay is currently being used to analyze hair samples from a study investigating the mechanisms of drug disposition in hair.

The effect of membrane cholesterol content on ion transport processes in plasma membranes.

Cholesterol is a prominent component of mammalian plasma membranes and is one of the factors that determine membrane function. In this review the effects of cholesterol content on transport processes in biological membranes are summarized. Membrane cholesterol affects a variety of membrane proteins, including ion channels, transporters, and receptors. Present concepts concerning the mechanistic basis of lipid-induced modulation of transport protein function range between two extremes: modulation by bulk properties or by specific interactions. Interest in bulk properties has been focussed mainly on membrane fluidity. The fluidity of biomembranes is diminished particularly by enrichment with cholesterol. As a change in membrane composition alters the environment in which the proteins are dissolved, any process which depends on membrane protein function may be affected by alterations in membrane composition, such as a change in cholesterol content. This review emphasizes the inhibitory effect of cholesterol enrichment on all membrane ATPases studied, and the stimulating effect of cholesterol enrichment on most other membrane transport proteins. Together with the intriguing feature that the cholesterol content of plasma membranes is considerably higher than that of subcellular membranes, there is ample evidence for a significant role of plasma membrane cholesterol in transmembrane protein function.

Detection of alprazolam in hair by negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry.

A sensitive and specific method for the quantitative determination of alprazolam (AL) in hair has been developed. After the addition of deuterium labeled triazolam as an internal standard, hair samples (20 mg) were digested with 1 N NaOH at 40 degrees C overnight. Calibrators containing known concentrations of AL dried onto drug-free hair were also prepared and digested. After digestion, the solution was cooled, adjusted to pH 9 with 6 N HCl and 1 ml of saturated sodium borate buffer was added. The digested solutions were extracted with toluene:methylene chloride (7:3) and the organic phase was evaporated to dryness. Extract residues were treated with BSTFA and 1% TMCS and analyzed on a Finnigan-MAT mass spectrometer in the negative-ion chemical ionization mode with methane as the reagent gas. Chromatographic separation was achieved on a Restek-200 capillary column using hydrogen as the carrier gas. The assay was capable of detecting 25 pg/mg of AL and was linear to 250 pg/mg. Intra-assay precision was 11.1% at 25 pg/mg and 5.4% at 150 pg/mg. Inter-assay precision was 11.2% at 25 pg/mg and 5.3% at 150 pg/mg. This method has been used to study the hair incorporation of AL into Long-Evans rats who received 5.0 mg/kg or 7.5 mg/kg i.p. twice a day for 5 days. Preliminary results indicate that the AL concentration in the pigmented and non-pigmented hair on day 14 ranged from 60 to 100 pg/mg.

Detection of stanozolol in hair by negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry.

Stanozolol is an anabolic androgenic steroid occasionally abused by athletes. A sensitive, specific, and reproducible method for the quantitative determination of stanozolol in hair has been developed. After the addition of stanozolol-d3 as the internal standard, hair samples (10-25 mg) were digested with 2 mL of 1N NaOH at 65 degrees C for at least 2 h. Digest solutions were then extracted using solid-phase extraction. The eluents were evaporated, a mixture of N-methyl-N-trimethylsilylhepta-fluorobutryamide (MSHFBA) and trimethylsilylimidazole (TSIM) (1000:20, v/v) was added, and the mixture heated at 80 degrees C for 5 minutes. After cooling to room temperature, N-methyl-bisheptafluorobutyramide (MBHFBA) was added and the mixture heated at 80 degrees C for 30 min. The derivatized extracts were analyzed on a Finnigan MATTM 4500 mass spectrometer in the negative chemical ionization mode. Chromatographic separation was achieved with helium carrier gas on a HP-1 capillary column (15 m x 0.2-mm i.d.; 33-microns film thickness). The assay was capable of reliably quantitating 50 pg/mg of stanozolol and was linear to 2500 pg/mg. Intra-assay precision was 13.2% at 50 pg/mg and 6.6% at 2500 pg/mg. Interassay precision was 13.7% at 50 pg/mg and 6.1% at 2500 pg/mg. This method has been applied to the analysis of stanozolol incorporated into rat hair. Male Long-Evans rats were given stanozolol 20 mg/kg intraperitoneally once daily for 3 days. The mean concentrations of stanozolol in the rat hair collected on day 14 were 362.4 +/- 332.4 pg/mg in pigmented hair and 90.0 +/- 46.9 pg/mg in nonpigmented hair. These data demonstrate that stanozolol is incorporated preferentially into pigmented hair.

Determination of alprazolam and alpha-hydroxyalprazolam in human plasma by gas chromatography/negative-ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry.

A sensitive and specific method was developed for the determination of alprazolam and its major metabolite alpha-hydroxyalprazolam in plasma. After the addition of deuterium-labeled internal standards, plasma samples were buffered to pH 9 with 1 ml of saturated sodium borate buffer, extracted with toluene-methylene chloride (7:3) and evaporated to dryness. The residues were treated with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide containing 1% of trimethylchlorosilane and analyzed on a Finnigan-MAT mass spectrometer operated in the negative-ion chemical ionization mode with methane as the reagent gas. Chromatographic separation was achieved on a Restek-200 capillary column using hydrogen as the carrier gas. The assay was linear from 0.25 to 50 ng ml-1 for both compounds. The intra-assay precision for alprazolam was 16.1% at 0.5 ng ml-1 and 4.6% at 50 ng ml-1 and that for alpha-hydroxyalprazolam was 15.8% at 0.5 ng ml-1 and 4.2% at 50 ng ml-1. The method was used to determine alprazolam and alpha-hydroxyalprazolam in human plasma samples collected after a single 2 mg oral does of alprazolam. A peak concentration of 32.9 ng ml-1 of alprazolam was detected at 1 h following the dose.

Enantioselective quantitation of (R)- and (S)-alprenolol by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in human saliva an plasma.

An enantioselective gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric assay is developed for alprenolol and its metabolite, 4-hydroxy-alprenolol, in saliva and plasma. The procedure is based on a two-step derivatization technique with N-heptafluorobutyryl-l-prolylchloride and N-methyl-N-trimethylsilyl-trifluoroacetamide, followed by a gas chromatographic separation with mass spectrometric detection of the diastereomeric derivatives. A selected ion chromatogram extracted from full scan data shows that the respective enantiomers of alprenolol, 4-hydroxy-alprenolol, and the internal standard (ions at m/z 481) are well-separated in saliva and plasma. Linear and reproducible calibration curves are obtained over the concentration ranges 1.67-13.33 ng/mL and 2.50-20.00 ng/mL enantiomer in saliva and plasma, respectively. The performance of the method for alprenolol, in terms of accuracy and precision, fits well within the generally accepted criteria for validation. The enantioselective assay is successfully used in a study involving a single oral dose of alprenolol administered to two healthy volunteers. Stereoselective differences are observed in the saliva and plasma concentrations following an oral dose of 50 mg (R,S)-alprenolol hydrochloride.

The secretion of propranolol enantiomers in human saliva: evidence for active transport?

To study the possible transport routes which may lead to the presence of a drug in saliva, the concentration-time curves of the separate enantiomers of propranolol were measured in human saliva and plasma after oral administration of 10 mg of propranolol hydrochloride. Saliva samples were taken with the Salivette device. Plasma and saliva concentrations of the enantiomers of propranolol were determined by HPLC with fluorescence detection. The transport of propranolol from plasma to the salivary gland appears to be not stereospecific and not saturable. Therefore, there is no indication that the transport of propranolol to the salivary gland is active. The concentrations of both enantiomers of propranolol in saliva, however, were higher than those of both enantiomers in venous plasma. In the past this phenomenon was interpreted as an indication of active transport, but it could be explained by the fact that salivary concentration more closely reflects the central compartment than that of peripheral venous blood.

Evaluation of the Salivette as sampling device for monitoring beta-adrenoceptor blocking drugs in saliva.

The Salivette was evaluated with a range of racemic beta-adrenoceptor blocking drugs with different lipophilicity. Recovery from the Salivette appeared to be independent of the stereochemical configuration of the drugs but a significant loss of drug due to the Salivette was observed for all tested drugs. The performance of the method, in terms of accuracy and precision, fitted well within the generally accepted criteria for validation, except near the limit of quantification. The Salivette is successfully used for quantitating salivary beta-blocking drugs.

Intracellular calcium signalling after binding of low-density lipoprotein to confluent and nonconfluent cultures of an endothelial cell line, EA.hy 926.

The effect of lipoproteins on cellular calcium ion concentration ([Ca2+]i) in EA.hy 926 endothelial cells was investigated, particularly with respect to the difference in response on [Ca2+]i between native low-density lipoprotein (LDL) which binds to the apo B/E receptor, and acetylated LDL (AcLDL) which binds to the scavenger receptor. The scavenger receptor recognizes chemically or cell-induced modified LDL. LDL as well as AcLDL caused a transient increase of [Ca2+]i lasting 1-2 min. On a protein basis, LDL was more effective that AcLDL in raising [Ca2+]i. Preincubation of confluent cultures in growth medium with a reduced fetal bovine serum content (2% FBS instead of 10%) increased the potency of LDL to increase [Ca2+]i. The LDL-induced peak [Ca2+]i was dependent on cell density. The effect of AcLDL on [Ca2+]i did not differ between confluent and nonconfluent cultures. Also, preincubation with 2% FBS did not modify the AcLDL-induced calcium response. We conclude that binding of lipoproteins to membrane lipoprotein receptors is responsible for the transient rise of [Ca2+]i although the characteristics of the calcium response are dependent on the receptor involved, i.e. the apo B/E (LDL) receptor or the scavenger receptor. We suggest that Ca2+ acts as a second messenger, and that the LDL-induced calcium response is controlled by the proliferative state of the cells.

Sequential analysis of infarcted and normal myocardium in piglets using in vivo gadolinium-enhanced MR images.

Gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance (MR) imaging was performed before, and 1 and 3 wk after coronary occlusion in domestic piglets. After administration of the contrast agent gadopentetate dimeglumine, two different enhancement patterns within the infarcted region were observed. The first pattern, showing peripheral enhancement of the infarcted region with absence of contrast in the center, was seen at 1 wk after occlusion at 5 min after administration of the contrast agent. The second pattern showed signal enhancement of the center of the infarcted region and was observed at 1 wk after occlusion, 30 min following contrast administration, and at 3 wk after occlusion, both 5 and 30 min following contrast administration. Infarct size and left ventricular (LV) mass by MR imaging, measured 3 wk after infarction, corresponded well with pathologic assessment. LV mass, measured by static and dynamic MR imaging, increased during the period of investigation. It is concluded that gadolinium-enhanced MR imaging clearly identifies infarcted myocardium early and late after coronary occlusion in the piglet. Combined results of infarct size and LV mass can be obtained simultaneously during one imaging procedure.

Voltage, calcium, and stretch activated ionic channels and intracellular calcium in bone cells.

Embryonic chick bone cells express various types of ionic channels in their plasma membranes for as yet unresolved functions. Chick osteoclasts (OCL) have the richest spectrum of channel types. Specific for OCL is a K+ channel, which activates (opens) when the inside negative membrane potential (Vm) becomes more negative (hyperpolarization). This is consistent with findings of others on rat OCL. The membrane conductance constituted by these channels is called the inward rectifying K+ conductance (GKi), or inward rectifier, because the hyperpolarization-activated channels cause cell-inward K+ current to pass more easily through the membrane than outward K+ current. Besides GKi channels, OCL may express two other types of voltage-activated K+ channels. One constitutes the transient outward rectifying K+ conductance (GKto), which is activated upon making the membrane potential less negative (depolarization) but has a transient nature. This conductance favors transient K+ conduction in the cell-outward direction. The GKto also occurs in a small percentage of cells in osteoblast (OBL) and periosteal fibroblast (PFB) cultures. The other OCL K+ conductance, the GKCa, is activated by both membrane depolarization and a rise in [Ca2+]i. GKCa channels are also present in the other chick bone cell types, that is, OBL, osteocytes (OCY), and PFB. Furthermore, in excised patches of all bone cell types, channels have been found that conduct anions, including Cl- and phosphate ions. These channels are only active around Vm = 0 mV. While searching for a membrane mechanism for adaptation of bone to mechanical loading, we found stretch-activated channels in chick osteoclasts; other investigators have found stretch-activated cation channels (K+ or aselective) in rat and human osteogenic cell lines. In contrast to other studies on cell lines or OBL from other species, we have not found any of the classic macroscopic voltage-activated calcium conductances (GCa) in any of the chick bone cells under our experimental conditions. However, our fluorescence measurements of [Ca2+]i in single cells indicate the presence of Ca2+ conductive pathways through the plasma membrane of osteoblastic cells and osteoclasts, consistent with other studies. We discuss possible roles for GKi, GKCa, and anion channels in acid secretion by OCL and for stretch-activated channels in OCL locomotion.