Predictors of depression among patients receiving treatment for snakebite in General Hospital, Kaltungo, Gombe State, Nigeria: August 2015.

BACKGROUND: Snakebite though neglected, affects 5 million people yearly. More neglected is the psychological effect of envenomation. We determined prevalence and pattern of depression among patients admitted into snakebite wards of Kaltungo General Hospital Nigeria, and percentage recognized by clinicians. We also assessed for factors associated with depression. METHODS: In a descriptive hospital based study, we used Patient Health questionnaire (PHQ-9) to make diagnosis of depression among the patients. We reviewed patients' clinical records to determine clinicians' recognition of depression. RESULTS: Of 187 interviews analyzed, 47 (25%) had depression with none recognized by attending clinicians. Patients with snakebite complications (odd ratio [OR] 3.1, 95% CI 1.1-8.5), and previous history of snakebites (OR 2.7, 95% CI 1.1-6.1) were associated with mild depression. Worrying about family welfare (OR 31.5, 95% CI 6.5-152.9), financial loss (OR 14.6, 95% CI 1.8-121.5) and time loss (OR 14.6, 95% CI 1.8-121.5), past history of snakebites (OR 8.3, 95% CI 1.9-36.5) and lower income (Mean difference -25,069 [84 USD], 95% CI 35,509 [118 USD]-14,630 [49 USD]) were associated with severe depression. CONCLUSION: A quarter of in-patients of snakebite wards of the general hospital had comorbid depression that went unrecognized. Independent predictors of depression such as past history of snakebite, worrying about relations and having snakebite complications could help clinicians anticipate depression among patients. We recommend training of clinicians in the hospital on recognition of common psychological disorders like depression.

Effect of distance and delay in access to care on outcome of snakebite in rural north-eastern Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION: Snakebite envenoming is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in rural areas of the tropics. Timely administration of effective antivenom remains the mainstay of management. METHODS: The study was a quantitative descriptive study aimed at exploring the causes and effects of delay, distance and time taken to access care on snakebite outcomes in Nigeria. All prospective snakebite victims reporting to Kaltungo General Hospital were enrolled. Data on demography, date and time bitten, date and time admitted, site of bite, circumstances of snakebite, responsible snake, clinical features, 20-minute whole-blood clotting test, antivenom administered and outcome were recorded. Delay arising from use of traditional first aid (TFA), time elapsed from snakebite to presentation and the shortest distance from bite location to the hospital was calculated or obtained using a global positioning system. RESULTS: The association between delay before hospital presentation and poor outcome was not statistically significant, even though there was a 2% higher likelihood of poor outcome among those with a 1-hour delay compared to those without delay (odds ratio 1.02, 95% confidence interval 1.00-1.03). There was no difference in distance from bite location to hospital between those with a poor outcome (74) compared to those with a good outcome (325). Those with a poor outcome had more severe envenomation requiring more antivenoms and longer hospital stays. Given poor access to antivenom therapy at distant locations ≥100 km, victims were more likely to use TFA such as black 'snake' stone, with consequent prolonged delays. Antivenoms should be more readily available at distant places. CONCLUSIONS: Community education on avoiding potentially harmful TFA and prompt access to care is recommended. There is a need to provide snakebite care to multiple peripheral, relatively more rural inaccessible areas.

Role of GeneXpert MTB/Rif Assay in Diagnosing Tuberculosis in Pregnancy and Puerperium.

Presentation of tuberculosis (TB) in pregnancy may be atypical with diagnostic challenges. Two patients with complicated pregnancy outcomes, foetal loss and live premature delivery at 5 and 7 months of gestation, respectively, and maternal loss, were diagnosed with pulmonary TB. Chest radiography and computed tomography showed widespread reticuloalveolar infiltrates and consolidation with cavitations, respectively. Both patients were Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) seronegative and sputum smear negative for TB. Sputum GeneXpert MTB/Rif (Xpert MTB/RIF) was positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis. To strengthen maternal and childhood TB control, screening with same-day point-of-care Xpert MTB/RIF is advocated among both HIV positive pregnant women and symptomatic HIV negative pregnant women during antenatal care in pregnancy and at puerperium.

Cost-effectiveness of antivenoms for snakebite envenoming in Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Snakebite envenoming is a major public health problem throughout the rural tropics. Antivenom is effective in reducing mortality and remains the mainstay of therapy. This study aimed to determine the cost-effectiveness of using effective antivenoms for Snakebite envenoming in Nigeria. METHODOLOGY: Economic analysis was conducted from a public healthcare system perspective. Estimates of model inputs were obtained from the literature. Incremental Cost Effectiveness Ratios (ICERs) were quantified as deaths and Disability-Adjusted-Life-Years (DALY) averted from antivenom therapy. A decision analytic model was developed and analyzed with the following model base-case parameter estimates: type of snakes causing bites, antivenom effectiveness to prevent death, untreated mortality, risk of Early Adverse Reactions (EAR), mortality risk from EAR, mean age at bite and remaining life expectancy, and disability risk (amputation). End-user costs applied included: costs of diagnosing and monitoring envenoming, antivenom drug cost, supportive care, shipping/freezing antivenom, transportation to-and-from hospital and feeding costs while on admission, management of antivenom EAR and free alternative snakebite care for ineffective antivenom. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We calculated a cost/death averted of ($2330.16) and cost/DALY averted of $99.61 discounted and $56.88 undiscounted. Varying antivenom effectiveness through the 95% confidence interval from 55% to 86% yield a cost/DALY averted of $137.02 to $86.61 respectively. Similarly, varying the prevalence of envenoming caused by carpet viper from 0% to 96% yield a cost/DALY averted of $254.18 to $78.25 respectively. More effective antivenoms and carpet viper envenoming rather than non-carpet viper envenoming were associated with lower cost/DALY averted. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Treatment of snakebite envenoming in Nigeria is cost-effective with a cost/death averted of $2330.16 and cost/DALY averted of $99.61 discounted, lower than the country's gross domestic product per capita of $1555 (2013). Expanding access to effective antivenoms to larger segments of the Nigerian population should be a considered a priority.

Pattern of antibiotic prescription and resistance profile of common bacterial isolates in the internal medicine wards of a tertiary referral centre in Nigeria.

Indiscriminate and excessive use of antibiotics is the major driver to the development of bacterial resistance, which is now a global challenge. Information regarding antibiotic use in Nigerian hospitals is lacking. This study examined the pattern of antibiotic prescription in a tertiary hospital in Nigeria. In a retrospective survey, case records of patients who were admitted into the medical wards over a 6-month period were reviewed. A pre-formed questionnaire was administered that sought information such as sociodemographic data, drug data, basis of prescription and other relevant information on all patients who received antibiotics. Data were analysed using SPSS for Windows v.16. Of 412 patients admitted into the internal medicine ward during the study period, 202 (49.0%) received antibiotics, of whom 125 (61.9%) received more than one antibiotic. Overall there were 334 antibiotic prescriptions. Community-acquired pneumonia (67/202; 33.2%) was the leading cause of antibiotic prescription, and ceftriaxone (132/334; 39.5%) was the most commonly prescribed antibiotic. The parenteral route was the commonest route of administration (270/334; 80.8%) and most of the prescriptions were empirical (323/334; 96.7%). Antimicrobial resistance among common bacterial isolates was noted. Inappropriate antibiotic prescription is common. There was frequent use of third-generation cephalosporins as empirical therapy, with de-escalation in only a handful of cases. This highlights the need for introduction of antibiotic guidelines.