Right ventricular dysfunction, late gadolinium enhancement, and female gender predict poor outcome in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy.

AIMS: Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) shows a variable disease course and is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. So far, left ventricular function (LVF) is the major determinant for risk stratification. However, since it has shown to be a poor guide to individual outcome, we studied the prognostic value of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) parameters, late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) and epicardial adipose tissue (EAT). METHODS AND RESULTS: 140 patients with DCM underwent late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) CMR. During a median follow-up of 3 years, 22 patients (16%) died and another 51 (36%) were hospitalized due to congestive heart failure (CHF). Female gender and right ventricular ejection fraction (RV-EF) below the median of 38% were independent predictors of all-cause mortality in multivariable analysis. In patients who were hospitalized due to CHF, RV-EF below the median of 38% was the only independent predictor in multivariable analysis. When patients where further stratified according to systolic LV-EF, the prognostic value of RV-EF to predict mortality and cardiac morbidity remained unchanged. Looking at DCM patients who died during follow-up compared to those who were hospitalized due to CHF, the former presented with a higher prevalence of LGE as well as reduced indexed EAT. CONCLUSION: Female gender, RV-EF and the presence of LGE are of prognostic importance in patients with DCM. Therefore, the present study underlines the role of CMR as an important tool for risk stratification in patients with DCM.

Right ventricular function quantification in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy using two-dimensional strain echocardiography.

AIMS: This study sought to characterize global and regional right ventricular (RV) myocardial function in patients with Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TC) using 2D strain imaging. METHODS: We compared various parameters of RV and left ventricular (LV) systolic function between 2 groups of consecutive patients with TC at initial presentation and upon follow-up. Group 1 had RV involvement and group 2 did not have RV involvement. RESULTS: At initial presentation, RV peak systolic longitudinal strain (RVPSS) and RV fractional area change (RVFAC) were significantly lower in group 1 (-13.2±8.6% vs. -21.8±5.4%, p = 0.001; 30.7±9.3% vs. 43.5±6.3%, p = 0.001) and improved significantly upon follow-up. Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) did not differ significantly at initial presentation between both groups (14.8±4.1 mm vs. 17.9±3.5 mm, p = 0.050). Differences in regional systolic RV strain were only observed in the mid and apical segments. LV ejection fraction (LVEF) and LV global strain were significantly lower in group 1 (36±8% vs. 46±10%, p = 0.006 and -5.5±4.8% vs. -10.2±6.2%, p = 0.040) at initial presentation. None of the parameters were significantly different between the 2 groups upon follow-up. A RVPSS cut-off value of >-19.1% had a sensitivity of 85% and a specificity of 71% to discriminate between the 2 groups. CONCLUSION: In TC, RVFAC, RVPSS, LVEF and LV global strain differed significantly between patients with and without RV dysfunction, whereas TAPSE did not. 2 D strain imaging was feasible for the assessment of RV dysfunction in TC and could discriminate between patients with and without RV involvement in a clinically meaningful way.

How to measure the right ventricular outflow tract with cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging: a head-to-head comparison of methods.

INTRODUCTION: Structural abnormalities of the right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) have been described in several clinical conditions. The aim of our study was to prospectively compare the available approaches to measuring the RVOT area and diameter by cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) and establish reference values in healthy volunteers. In addition, we sought to introduce a new algorithm for dedicated RVOT area evaluation determined by the RVOT axis. METHODS: In 50 healthy volunteers CMR was performed to measure the RVOT area: 1) on axial images using turbo spin echo imaging (axial TSE), 2) on steady state free precession (axial SSFP), 3) on short axis slices using SSFP (SAX SSFP), and 4) on a plane determined by the RVOT axis using SSFP (RVOT axis SSFP). Additionally, the RVOT diameter was measured on SSFP SAX images. RESULTS: RVOT measurements on axial TSE (8.4 ± 1.4 cm(2)) and on RVOT axis SSFP images were comparable (8.4 ± 0.1 cm(2), p=0.99). The axial SSFP (10.2 ± 1.5 cm(2)) and SAX SSFP (11.0 ± 1.9 cm(2)) images resulted in significantly larger RVOT areas than on the axial TSE images (p<0.0001) and on the RVOT axis SSFP images (p<0.0001). The RVOT diameter measured was 22.4 ± 0.3 mm. RVOT assessment on the axial SSFP and RVOT axis SSFP images revealed the best intra- and interobserver reliability. CONCLUSION: RVOT area measurements differ significantly in healthy volunteers, depending on the imaging plane and technique. In view of the excellent intra- and interobserver reliability and the precise image plane positioning, we recommend the new RVOT axis approach for dedicated RVOT measurements.

Myocardial scar detected by cardiovascular magnetic resonance in a competitive bodybuilder with longstanding abuse of anabolic steroids.

INTRODUCTION: The self-administration intake of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) is a widespread practice in competitive bodybuilders. Structural changes within the myocardium following AAS abuse including hypertrophy, restricted diastolic function as well as systolic dysfunction and impaired ventricular inflow have been reported. CASE PRESENTATION: We present the case of a 39-year-old bodybuilder with a more than 20-year history of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) abuse presenting with increasing exertional dyspnoea and fatigue. Diagnostic work-up of the patient's current symptoms included a cine cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR). Using a T1-weighted inversion-recovery sequence 10 minutes after application of 0.1 mmol/kg gadolinium with diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (gadolinium DTPA), patchy midwall enhancement in the septal and posterolateral region of the left ventricle was demonstrated. This enhancement pattern is different from the enhancement pattern found in patients with ischemic heart disease. CONCLUSIONS: The present case illustrates for the first time, by CMR, myocardial scarring with severe left ventricular hypertrophy in a patient with normal coronary arteries after long lasting abuse of AAS. With that finding we could demonstrate a link between AAS abuse and the occurrence of myocardial scarring in humans. This finding may help raise awareness of the consequences of AAS use.

Is abnormal myocardial repolarization associated with the occurrence of malignant tachyarrhythmias in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy?

BACKGROUND: Abnormalities of cardiac repolarization are a hallmark of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TC), but their association with the occurrence of syncope and ventricular tachyarrhythmias is unknown. This study sought to assess the relationship between myocardial repolarization and malignant tachyarrhythmias in TC. METHODS: Clinical data and electrocardiographic repolarization parameters of 28 patients with TC and ventricular tachyarrhythmias (n = 26) or syncope (n = 2) were compared to data from 20 randomly selected patients with TC but without ventricular tachyarrhythmias or syncope. RESULTS: Study patients had significantly lower ejection fraction (EF) compared with controls (35 ± 14% vs. 46 ± 10%, p = 0.006). On day 1, no significant differences in repolarization parameters were observed. However, in the subgroup with ventricular fi brillation ([VF]; n = 10), Tpeak-Tend in lead V6 was significantly prolonged (97 ± 20 vs. 85 ± 19 ms; p = 0.04). Similarly, in the subgroup with torsade de pointes ([TdP]; n = 5) Tpeak-Tend in lead V4 was prolonged (127 ± 21 vs. 94 ± 27 ms; p = 0.001). On day 3, Tpeak-Tend in lead V3 (130 ± 51 vs. 105 ± 21 ms, p = 0.049) and Tpeak-Tend dispersion (56 ± 33 vs. 36 ± 21 ms; p = 0.03) were significantly longer in study patients. The difference in Tpeak-Tend in lead V3 was borderline in the VF subgroup, but significant in the subgroup with TdP. The latter group had also longer Tpeak-Tend in lead V4 and longer corrected QT interval in leads V3 and V4. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with TC who experience malignant tachyarrhythmias have lower EF and a more pronounced alteration of the spatial dispersion of ventricular repolarization.

Influence of bag volume on reproducibility of inert gas rebreathing pulmonary blood flow measurements in patients with pulmonary diseases.

PURPOSE: Non-invasive inert gas rebreathing (IGR) has shown promising results in the determination of pulmonary blood flow. The volume of the rebreathing bag (V bag) is proposed by the system. However, elderly patients or those with severe pulmonary disease may be unable to rebreathe this volume entirely. We evaluated the effect of adapting V bag on the reproducibility of IGR. METHODS: A total of 270 valid measurements were obtained from 45 patients with obstruction (group A), restriction (group B), and in healthy controls (group C). Two measurements for each of three different V bag of 1,200, 1,700, and 2,200 ml were conducted in the supine position. RESULTS: We found no statistically significant difference of the repeated measurements neither between the different V bag in groups A to C nor between the three groups for identical V bag. There was a weak yet significantly worse coefficient of variation between a V bag of 2,200 ml in group A compared with group C with 2,200 and 1,200 ml, respectively. Intraclass correlation coefficient and repeatability coefficient yielded significantly worse values in group A for a V bag of 2,200 ml compared with healthy controls and lower bag volumes. No difference could be found intraclass nor interclass in groups B and C. CONCLUSIONS: V bag can be altered between 1,200 and 2,200 ml in most situations without affecting the reproducibility. Attention has to be paid to extreme volumes in obstructive patients. Nevertheless, V bag should be chosen as large as possible and therefore has to be carefully adapted, particularly in patients with obstruction or restriction.

Impact of shocks on mortality in patients with ischemic or dilated cardiomyopathy and defibrillators implanted for primary prevention.

BACKGROUND: Emerging interest is seen in the paradox of defibrillator shocks for ventricular tachyarrhythmia and increased mortality risk. Particularly in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), the prognostic importance of shocks is unclear. The purpose of this study was to compare the outcome after shocks in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy (ICM) or DCM and defibrillators (ICD) implanted for primary prevention. METHODS AND RESULTS: Data of 561 patients were analyzed (mean age 68.6±10.6 years, mean left ventricular ejection fraction 28.6±7.3%). During a median follow-up of 49.3 months, occurrence of device therapies and all-cause mortality were recorded. 74 out of 561 patients (13.2%) experienced ≥1 appropriate and 51 out of 561 patients (9.1%) ≥1 inappropriate shock. All-cause mortality was 24.2% (136 out of 561 subjects). Appropriate shock was associated with a trend to higher mortality in the overall patient population (HR 1.48, 95% CI 0.96-2.28, log rank p = 0.072). The effect was significant in ICM patients (HR 1.61, 95% CI 1.00-2.59, log rank p = 0.049) but not in DCM patients (HR 1.03, 95% CI 0.36-2.96, log rank p = 0.96). Appropriate shocks occurring before the median follow-up revealed a much stronger impact on mortality (HR for the overall patient population 2.12, 95% CI 1.24-3.63, p = 0.005). The effect was driven by ICM patients (HR 2.48, 95% CI 1.41-4.37, p = 0.001), as appropriate shocks again did not influence survival of DCM patients (HR 0.63, 95% CI 0.083-4.75, p = 0.65). Appropriate shocks occurring after the median follow-up and inappropriate shocks occurring at any time revealed no impact on survival in any of the groups (p = ns). CONCLUSION: Appropriate shocks are associated with reduced survival in patients with ICM but not in patients with DCM and ICDs implanted for primary prevention. Furthermore, the negative effect of appropriate shocks on survival in ICM patients is only evident within the first 4 years after device implantation.

Epicardial adipose tissue assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in patients with heart failure due to dilated cardiomyopathy.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to investigate the association of the EAT with CMR parameters of ventricular remodelling and left ventricular (LV) dysfunction in patients with non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). DESIGN AND METHODS: One hundred and fifty subjects (112 consecutive patients with DCM and 48 healthy controls) underwent CMR examination. Function, volumes, dimensions, the LV remodelling index (LVRI), the presence of late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) and the amount of EAT were assessed. RESULTS: Compared to healthy controls, patients with DCM revealed a significantly reduced indexed EAT mass (31.7 ± 5.6 g/m(2) vs 24.0 ± 7.5 g/m(2) , p<0.0001). There was no difference in the EAT mass between DCM patients with moderate and severe LV dysfunction (23.5 ± 9.8 g/m(2) vs 24.2 ± 6.6 g/m(2) , P = 0.7). Linear regression analysis in DCM patients showed that with increasing LV end-diastolic mass index (LV-EDMI) (r = 0.417, P < 0.0001), increasing LV end-diastolic volume index (r = 0.251, P = 0.01) and increasing LV end-diastolic diameter (r = 0.220, P = 0.02), there was also a significantly increased amount of EAT mass. However, there was no correlation between the EAT and the LV ejection fraction (r = 0.0085, P = 0.37), right ventricular ejection fraction (r = 0.049, P = 0.6), LVRI (r = 0.116, P = 0.2) and the extent of LGE % (r = 0.189, P = 0.1). Among the healthy controls, the amount of EAT only correlated with increasing age (r = 0.461, P = 0.001), BMI (r = 0.426, P = 0.003) and LV-EDMI (r = 0.346, P = 0.02). CONCLUSION: In patients with DCM the amount of EAT is decreased compared to healthy controls irrespective of LV function impairment. However, an increase in LV mass and volumes is associated with a significantly increase in EAT in patients with DCM.

Evaluation of aortic valve stenosis using a hybrid approach of Doppler echocardiography and inert gas rebreathing.

BACKGROUND: Doppler echocardiography is the method of choice for diagnosis and evaluation of aortic stenosis. However, there are well-known limitations to this method in difficult-to-image patients. Flow acceleration in the left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) can lead to overestimation of stroke volume (SV) and poor acoustic windows may impede the exact measurement of the LVOT. The present study aimed to evaluate the use of inert gas rebreathing (IGR)-derived SV in this situation. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We replaced Doppler-derived SV measurements in the continuity equation (method A) by SV determined by IGR (method B) and by thermodilution during right heart catheterization (method C) to calculate the aortic valve area (AVA) in 21 consecutive patients with moderate or severe aortic stenosis. RESULTS: Mean SV and AVA did not differ between methods at 72±21 ml and 0.71±0.2 cm(2) (method A) vs. 66±18 ml and 0.67±0.21 cm(2) (method B) vs. 64±15 ml and 0.67±0.21 cm(2) (method C), respectively (all p-values >0.05). The mean difference and limits of agreement for AVA were 0.04±0.23 cm(2) and -0.40 to 0.47 cm(2) between methods A and B, 0.05±0.14 cm(2) and -0.26 to 0.27 cm(2) between A and C, and -0.05±0.23 cm(2) and -0.45 to 0.35 cm(2) between B and C, respectively (all p-values >0.05). CONCLUSION: The presented approach is a reliable method for the calculation of AVA and can add a diagnostic option for the use in difficult-to-image patients. Whereas the use of thermodilution is limited due to its invasive nature, IGR allows the fast and non-invasive determination of cardiac function at low cost.

The relationship between the severity of coronary artery disease and epicardial adipose tissue depends on the left ventricular function.

BACKGROUND: Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) is an active metabolic and endocrine organ. Previous studies focusing mainly on patients with preserved left ventricular function (LVF) could show a correlation between increased amounts of EAT and the extent and activity of coronary artery disease (CAD). However, to date, there are no data available about the relationship between EAT and the severity of CAD with respect to the whole spectrum of LVF impairment. Therefore, we evaluated this relationship in patients with CAD. METHODS: 250 patients with CAD and 50 healthy controls underwent CMR examination to assess EAT. The severity of CAD was defined using the angiographic Gensini score (GSS). RESULTS: The GSS ranged from 2-364. Linear regression analysis revealed a significant correlation between EAT and GSS (r = 0.177, p = 0.01). Patients with mild (GSS≤10) and moderate CAD (GSS>10-≤40) showed comparable EAT to healthy controls. However, in patients with severe CAD (GSS>40) EAT was significantly reduced (p<0.0001) compared to healthy controls. Interestingly, patients with the same GSS revealed different EAT depending on the left ventricular function (LVF). Patients with preserved LVF (LVF≥50%) showed more EAT mass compared to those with reduced LVF (LVF<50%) regardless of the GSS. In patients with preserved LVF and mild CAD, EAT was comparable to healthy controls (61.8±19.4 g vs. 62.9±14.4 g, p = 0.8). In patients with moderate CAD, EAT rose significantly to 83.1±24.9 g (p = 0.01) and started to decline to 66.4±23.6 g in patients with severe CAD (p = 0.03). Contrary, in CAD patients with reduced LVF, EAT was already significantly reduced in patients with mild CAD as compared to healthy controls (p = 0.001) and showed a stepwise decline with increasing CAD severity. CONCLUSION: The relationship between EAT and the severity of CAD depends on LVF. These findings emphasize the multifactorial interaction between EAT and the severity of CAD.

Impact of functional, morphological and clinical parameters on epicardial adipose tissue in patients with coronary artery disease.

BACKGROUND: Because a close relationship between epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) and coronary artery disease (CAD) has been shown, the impact of functional, morphological and clinical parameters to identify potential determinants of EAT was investigated. METHODS AND RESULTS: Clinical and cardiac magnetic resonance parameters were determined and correlated to the amount of EAT in 158 patients with CAD and 40 healthy subjects. Patients with CAD and left ventricular function (LVEF) ≥50% revealed significantly elevated EAT (36±11g/m²) compared to healthy controls (31±8g/m²) and to patients with LVEF <50% (26±8.0g/m²). In the whole study population, only LVEF (P=0.003), body mass index (BMI) (P=0.004) and left ventricular end diastolic diameter (LV-EDD) (P=0.004) remained significantly associated with EAT after multivariate analysis. Subgroup analysis in patients with CAD and LVEF ≥50% showed that BMI (P=0.03) was the only correlate of EAT. However, in patients with CAD and LVEF <50%, indexed LV end diastolic mass (LV-EDMI) (P=0.003) and the extent of late gadolinium enhancement (LGE %) (P=0.03) remained significantly correlated with EAT in multivariate analysis. CONCLUSIONS: The amount and the determinants of EAT differ according to the LVEF in patients with CAD. Thus, different amounts of EAT reflect different stages of CAD underlining the complex interaction of EAT in the pathogenesis and progression of ischemic cardiomyopathy.

Platelet and monocyte activity markers and mediators of inflammation in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy.

Patients with Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TC) often present with symptoms similar to those of myocardial infarction (MI). We analyzed blood concentrations of mediators of inflammation and platelet- and monocyte-activity markers in patients with TC and MI for significant differences. Clinical data of patients with TC (n = 16) and acute MI (n = 16) were obtained. Serial blood samples were taken at the time of hospital admission (t(0)), after 2-4 days (t(1)) and after 4-7 weeks (t(2)), respectively. Plasma concentrations of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-7, soluble CD40 ligand (sCD40L), and monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1) were determined with an ELISA. Tissue factor binding on monocytes, platelet-activation marker CD62P, platelet CD40-ligand (CD40L), and platelet-monocyte aggregates were measured using flow cytometry. Expression of CD62P on platelets and IL-6 plasma levels were significantly lower in patients with TC compared to MI at the time of hospital admission. IL-7 plasma levels were significantly elevated in patients with TC compared to patients with MI at 2-4 days after hospital admission. No significant differences were observed concerning sCD40L and MCP-1 plasma levels, tissue factor binding on monocytes, CD40L expression on platelets, and platelet-monocyte aggregates at any point in time. Our results indicate that inflammatory mediators and platelet-activity markers contribute to the differences in the pathogenesis of MI and TC.

Global and regional myocardial function quantification in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy in comparison to acute anterior myocardial infarction using two-dimensional (2D) strain echocardiography.

AIMS: This study sought to compare global and regional myocardial function in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TC) to that in acute anterior myocardial infarction (AMI) using 2D strain imaging. METHODS: Twelve consecutive patients with TC (ten women, two men) and 12 patients with AMI (four women, eight men) underwent 2D echocardiography at initial presentation. 2D strain images were analyzed to measure longitudinal and radial strain. Global strain was calculated as the average longitudinal strain of the segments of two-, three-, and four-chamber views. Biplane ejection fraction was assessed using Simpson's biplane method. RESULTS: Significant differences in radial strain (TC vs. AMI) were found in lateral (13.5 ± 10.1% vs. 25.1 ± 11.2%, P = 0.035), posterior (15.2 ± 14.5% vs. 51.4 ± 14.2%, P < 0.001), and inferior (17.9 ± 15.5% vs. 49.4 ± 16.9%, P = 0.002) segments. Longitudinal strain was significantly lower in TC in basal-inferior (-15.8 ± 9.2% vs. -22.7 ± 3.8%, P = 0.037), midinferior (-8.3 ± 9.2% vs. -16.8 ± 3.0%, P = 0.004), basal-posterior (-12.2 ± 9.4% vs. -21.6 ± 4.4%, P = 0.016), midposterior (-4.4 ± 8.0% vs. -15.4 ± 3.5%, P = 0.002), apical-posterior (2.3 ± 6.7% vs. -6.4 ± 10.1%, P = 0.023), and midlateral (-3.4 ± 6.9% vs. -9.5 ± 5.8%, P = 0.028) segments. Global strain and ejection fraction were significantly higher in patients with AMI (-3.5 ± 8.2% vs. -10.3 ± 8.4%, P < 0.001 and 37 ± 11% vs. 46 ± 11%, P = 0.045). CONCLUSION: In TC, strain was reduced around the entire mid left-ventricular circumference, whereas in AMI it was predominantly reduced in the anterior and anteroseptal wall. These observed differences confirm the notion that TC affects myocardium beyond the territory of a single coronary artery. They may allow noninvasive distinction between both entities.

Spontaneous type 1 electrocardiographic pattern is associated with cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging changes in Brugada syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Patients with Brugada syndrome (BrS) and a spontaneous type 1 ECG are considered to be at greater increased risk for sudden cardiac death than are patients with an abnormal ECG only after administration of sodium channel blockers and therefore represent a more severe phenotype. Thus, it can be hypothesized that in the presence of a more severe electrical phenotype, structural and functional changes are more likely expected because electrical changes can play a causal role in producing structural changes. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the different ECG manifestations in patients with BrS are associated with structural changes detected by cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging. METHODS: Cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging was performed on 69 consecutive patients with proven BrS and 30 healthy controls. Twenty-six patients had a spontaneous diagnostic type 1 BrS ECG; the remainder had a type 1 response to ajmaline provocation. Left and right ventricular volumes and dimensions were assessed and compared with respect to ECG pattern. RESULTS: The right ventricular outflow tract area was significantly enlarged in patients with a spontaneous type 1 ECG compared to patients with a nondiagnostic resting ECG or controls (11 cm(2), 9 cm(2), and 9 cm(2), respectively, P < .05). Patients with a spontaneous type 1 BrS ECG revealed significantly lower left ventricular ejection fraction than did patients with a nondiagnostic resting ECG and controls (56 ± 5 vs 59 ± 5 vs 60 ± 4, respectively, P < .05) and significantly lower right ventricular ejection fraction (54 ± 5 vs 59 ± 5, P = .001) as well as end-systolic volumes compared to controls (34 ± 9 mL/m(2) vs 28 ± 79 mL/m(2), P = .02). CONCLUSION: Patients with a spontaneous type 1 BrS ECG reveal significantly functional and morphological alterations in both the left and right ventricles compared to patients with basal nondiagnostic ECG or controls.

Epicardial adipose tissue in patients with heart failure.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the extent of epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) and its relationship with left ventricular (LV) parameters assessed by cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) in patients with congestive heart failure (CHF) and healthy controls. BACKGROUND: EAT is the true visceral fat deposited around the heart which generates various bioactive molecules. Previous studies found that EAT is related to left ventricular mass (LVM) in healthy subjects. Further studies showed a constant EAT to myocardial mass ratio in normal, ischemic and hypertrophied hearts. METHODS: CMR was performed in 66 patients with CHF due to ischemic cardiomyopathy (ICM), or dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and 32 healthy controls. Ventricular volumes, dimensions and LV function were assessed. The amount of EAT was determined volumetrically and expressed as mass indexed to body surface area. Additionally, the EAT/LVM and the EAT/left ventricular remodelling index (LVRI) ratios were calculated. RESULTS: Patients with CHF had less indexed EAT mass than controls (22 +/- 5 g/m2 versus 34 +/- 4 g/m2, p < 0.0001). In the subgroup analysis there were no significant differences in indexed EAT mass between patients with ICM and DCM (21 +/- 4 g/m2 versus 23 +/- 6 g/m2, p = 0.14). Linear regression analysis showed that with increasing LV end-diastolic diameter (LV-EDD) (r = 0.42, p = 0.0004) and LV end-diastolic mass (LV-EDM) (r = 0.59, p < 0.0001), there was a significantly increased amount of EAT in patients with CHF. However, the ratio of EAT mass/LV-EDM was significantly reduced in patients with CHF compared to healthy controls (0.54 +/- 0.1 versus 0.21 +/- 0.1, p < 0.0001). In CHF patients higher indexed EAT/LVRI-ratios in CHF patients correlated best with a reduced LV-EF (r = 0.49, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: Patients with CHF revealed significantly reduced amounts of EAT. An increase in LVM is significantly related to an increase in EAT in both patients with CHF and controls. However, different from previous reports the EAT/LVEDM-ratio in patients with CHF was significantly reduced compared to healthy controls. Furthermore, the LV function correlated best with the indexed EAT/LVRI ratio in CHF patients. Metabolic abnormalities and/or anatomic alterations due to disturbed cardiac function and geometry seem to play a key role and are a possible explanation for these findings.

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy is not due to plaque rupture: an intravascular ultrasound study.

BACKGROUND: Plaque rupture with subsequent transient thrombotic coronary occlusion by a fast-dissolving clot is one of the proposed pathogenic mechanisms in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TC). HYPOTHESIS: The aim of this study was to seek evidence for the hypothesis of transient coronary thrombosis as the underlying mechanism of TC by means of intravascular ultrasound (IVUS). METHODS: In our database of 63 consecutive patients with TC we identified 10 patients (16%) who had undergone IVUS during their initial left heart catheterisation. RESULTS: A median length of 67 mm of the left anterior descending artery was analyzed (interquartile range [IQR]: 63.3-70.1 mm). Median lumen diameter, median vessel diameter, median plaque and media volume were 2.9 mm (IQR: 2.7-3.1 mm), 4.2 mm (IQR: 3.8-4.4 mm), and 90.9 mm(3) (IQR: 70.4-101.4 mm(3)), respectively. Plaque rupture, positive remodeling, and presumed intracoronary thrombus were absent in all patients. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, plaque rupture does not account for the regional wall motion abnormalities observed in TC. The previously reported observation of plaque rupture in TC seems to constitute an incidental finding. We suggest that the theory of aborted myocardial infarction as the underlying cause of TC should be abandoned once and for all.