Interleukin-1 signaling contributes to acute islet compensation.

IL-1ß is a well-established inducer of both insulin resistance and impaired pancreatic islet function. Despite this, findings examining IL-1 receptor deficiency or antagonism in in vivo animal models, as well as in clinical studies of type 2 diabetic (T2D) patients, have led to conflicting results, suggesting that the actions of IL-1ß on glycemic control may be pleiotropic in nature. In the present work, we find that the ability of IL-1ß to amplify glucose-stimulated insulin secretion from human islets correlates with donor BMI. Islets from obese donors are sensitized to the insulinotropic effects of this cytokine, whereas the stimulatory effects of IL-1ß are lost in islets from obese T2D patients, suggesting a role for IL-1 signaling in islet compensation. Indeed, mice deficient in IL-1 receptor type I become glucose intolerant more rapidly than their WT littermates and have impaired secretory responses during the acute stages of inflammatory and metabolic stress induced by LPS and high-fat diet, respectively. IL-1ß directly enhances ß cell insulin secretion by increasing granule docking and soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment receptor (SNARE) complex formation at the plasma membrane. Together, our study highlights the importance of IL-1ß signaling in islet compensation to metabolic and inflammatory stress.

Isocitrate-to-SENP1 signaling amplifies insulin secretion and rescues dysfunctional ß cells.

Insulin secretion from ß cells of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans controls metabolic homeostasis and is impaired in individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Increases in blood glucose trigger insulin release by closing ATP-sensitive K+ channels, depolarizing ß cells, and opening voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels to elicit insulin exocytosis. However, one or more additional pathway(s) amplify the secretory response, likely at the distal exocytotic site. The mitochondrial export of isocitrate and engagement with cytosolic isocitrate dehydrogenase (ICDc) may be one key pathway, but the mechanism linking this to insulin secretion and its role in T2D have not been defined. Here, we show that the ICDc-dependent generation of NADPH and subsequent glutathione (GSH) reduction contribute to the amplification of insulin exocytosis via sentrin/SUMO-specific protease-1 (SENP1). In human T2D and an in vitro model of human islet dysfunction, the glucose-dependent amplification of exocytosis was impaired and could be rescued by introduction of signaling intermediates from this pathway. Moreover, islet-specific Senp1 deletion in mice caused impaired glucose tolerance by reducing the amplification of insulin exocytosis. Together, our results identify a pathway that links glucose metabolism to the amplification of insulin secretion and demonstrate that restoration of this axis rescues ß cell function in T2D.

SUMOylation protects against IL-1ß-induced apoptosis in INS-1 832/13 cells and human islets.

Posttranslational modification by the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) peptides, known as SUMOylation, is reversed by the sentrin/SUMO-specific proteases (SENPs). While increased SUMOylation reduces ß-cell exocytosis, insulin secretion, and responsiveness to GLP-1, the impact of SUMOylation on islet cell survival is unknown. Mouse islets, INS-1 832/13 cells, or human islets were transduced with adenoviruses to increase either SENP1 or SUMO1 or were transfected with siRNA duplexes to knockdown SENP1. We examined insulin secretion, intracellular Ca²âº responses, induction of endoplasmic reticulum stress markers and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression, and apoptosis by TUNEL and caspase 3 cleavage. Surprisingly, upregulation of SENP1 reduces insulin secretion and impairs intracellular Ca²âº handling. This secretory dysfunction is due to SENP1-induced cell death. Indeed, the detrimental effect of SENP1 on secretory function is diminished when two mediators of ß-cell death, iNOS and NF-κB, are pharmacologically inhibited. Conversely, enhanced SUMOylation protects against IL-1ß-induced cell death. This is associated with reduced iNOS expression, cleavage of caspase 3, and nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Taken together, these findings identify SUMO1 as a novel antiapoptotic protein in islets and demonstrate that reduced viability accounts for impaired islet function following SENP1 up-regulation.

Functional plasticity of the human infant ß-cell exocytotic phenotype.

Our understanding of adult human ß-cells is advancing, but we know little about the function and plasticity of ß-cells from infants. We therefore characterized islets and single islet cells from human infants after isolation and culture. Although islet morphology in pancreas biopsies was similar to that in adults, infant islets after isolation and 24-48 hours of culture had less insulin staining, content, and secretion. The cultured infant islets expressed pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1 and several (Glut1, Cav1.3, Kir6.2) but not all (syntaxin 1A and synaptosomal-associated protein 25) markers of functional islets, suggesting a loss of secretory phenotype in culture. The activity of key ion channels was maintained in isolated infant ß-cells, whereas exocytosis was much lower than in adults. We examined whether a functional exocytotic phenotype could be reestablished under conditions thought to promote ß-cell differentiation. After a 24- to 28-day expansion and maturation protocol, we found preservation of endocrine markers and hormone expression, an increased proportion of insulin-positive cells, elevated expression of syntaxin 1A and synaptosomal-associated protein 25, and restoration of exocytosis to levels comparable with that in adult ß-cells. Thus, human infant islets are prone to loss of their exocytotic phenotype in culture but amenable to experimental approaches aimed at promoting expansion and functional maturation. Control of exocytotic protein expression may be an important mechanism underlying the plasticity of the secretory machinery, an increased understanding of which may lead to improved regenerative approaches to treat diabetes.

Novel roles of SUMO in pancreatic ß-cells: thinking outside the nucleus.

The endocrine pancreas is critically important in the regulation of energy metabolism, with defective insulin secretion from pancreatic islet ß-cells a major contributing factor to the development of type 2 diabetes. Small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) proteins have been demonstrated to covalently modify a wide range of target proteins, mediating a broad range of cellular processes. While the effects of SUMOylation on ß-cell gene transcription have been previously reviewed, recent reports indicate roles for SUMO outside of the nucleus. In this review we shall focus on the reported non-nuclear roles of SUMOylation in the regulation of ß-cells, including SUMOylation as a novel signaling pathway in the acute regulation of insulin secretion.

In vivo role of focal adhesion kinase in regulating pancreatic ß-cell mass and function through insulin signaling, actin dynamics, and granule trafficking.

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) acts as an adaptor at the focal contacts serving as a junction between the extracellular matrix and actin cytoskeleton. Actin dynamics is known as a determinant step in insulin secretion. Additionally, FAK has been shown to regulate insulin signaling. To investigate the essential physiological role of FAK in pancreatic ß-cells in vivo, we generated a transgenic mouse model using rat insulin promoter (RIP)-driven Cre-loxP recombination system to specifically delete FAK in pancreatic ß-cells. These RIPcre(+)fak(fl/fl) mice exhibited glucose intolerance without changes in insulin sensitivity. Reduced ß-cell viability and proliferation resulting in decreased ß-cell mass was observed in these mice, which was associated with attenuated insulin/Akt (also known as protein kinase B) and extracellular signal-related kinase 1/2 signaling and increased caspase 3 activation. FAK-deficient ß-cells exhibited impaired insulin secretion with normal glucose sensing and preserved Ca(2+) influx in response to glucose, but a reduced number of docked insulin granules and insulin exocytosis were found, which was associated with a decrease in focal proteins, paxillin and talin, and an impairment in actin depolymerization. This study is the first to show in vivo that FAK is critical for pancreatic ß-cell viability and function through regulation in insulin signaling, actin dynamics, and granule trafficking.

SUMOylation regulates insulin exocytosis downstream of secretory granule docking in rodents and humans.

OBJECTIVE: The reversible attachment of small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) proteins controls target localization and function. We examined an acute role for the SUMOylation pathway in downstream events mediating insulin secretion. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We studied islets and ß-cells from mice and human donors, as well as INS-1 832/13 cells. Insulin secretion, intracellular Ca(2+), and ß-cell exocytosis were monitored after manipulation of the SUMOylation machinery. Granule localization was imaged by total internal reflection fluorescence and electron microscopy; immunoprecipitation and Western blotting were used to examine the soluble NSF attachment receptor (SNARE) complex formation and SUMO1 interaction with synaptotagmin VII. RESULTS: SUMO1 impairs glucose-stimulated insulin secretion by blunting the ß-cell exocytotic response to Ca(2+). The effect of SUMO1 to impair insulin secretion and ß-cell exocytosis is rapid and does not require altered gene expression or insulin content, is downstream of granule docking at the plasma membrane, and is dependent on SUMO-conjugation because the deSUMOylating enzyme, sentrin/SUMO-specific protease (SENP)-1, rescues exocytosis. SUMO1 coimmunoprecipitates with the Ca(2+) sensor synaptotagmin VII, and this is transiently lost upon glucose stimulation. SENP1 overexpression also disrupts the association of SUMO1 with synaptotagmin VII and mimics the effect of glucose to enhance exocytosis. Conversely, SENP1 knockdown impairs exocytosis at stimulatory glucose levels and blunts glucose-dependent insulin secretion from mouse and human islets. CONCLUSIONS: SUMOylation acutely regulates insulin secretion by the direct and reversible inhibition of ß-cell exocytosis in response to intracellular Ca(2+) elevation. The SUMO protease, SENP1, is required for glucose-dependent insulin secretion.