Tracer-free liquid-vapor imaging using lifetime-filtered planar laser-induced fluorescence.

The separation of liquid phase and vapor phase laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) signals using tracer species suffers from uncertainties in tracer-fuel coevaporation, as well as a disparity in liquid and vapor signals. This work demonstrates the use of a simple technique, referred to as lifetime-filtered LIF, to help separate the liquid and vapor signals of fuel sprays in oxygen-free environments without the use of added tracers. This is demonstrated for a common aviation fuel, Jet-A, using prompt detection of the liquid phase and time-delayed detection of the vapor phase. A scaled liquid signal subtraction algorithm is also demonstrated for removing vapor phase signal contamination caused by the largest droplets.

Single-camera, single-shot, time-resolved laser-induced incandescence decay imaging.

Knowledge of soot particle sizes is important for understanding soot formation and heat transfer in combustion environments. Soot primary particle sizes can be estimated by measuring the decay of time-resolved laser-induced incandescence (TiRe-LII) signals. Existing methods for making planar TiRe-LII measurements require either multiple cameras or time-gate sweeping with multiple laser pulses, making these techniques difficult to apply in turbulent or unsteady combustion environments. Here, we report a technique for planar soot particle sizing using a single high-sensitivity, ultra-high-speed 10 MHz camera with a 50 ns gate and no intensifier. With this method, we demonstrate measurements of background flame luminosity, prompt LII, and TiRe-LII decay signals for particle sizing in a single laser shot. The particle sizing technique is first validated in a laminar non-premixed ethylene flame. Then, the method is applied to measurements in a turbulent ethylene jet flame.

4D spatiotemporal evolution of combustion intermediates in turbulent flames using burst-mode volumetric laser-induced fluorescence.

High-speed (20 kHz rate), volumetric laser-induced-fluorescence imaging of combustion intermediates such as a formaldehyde (CH2O) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) species is demonstrated for tracking the four-dimensional (4D) evolution of turbulent flames. The third-harmonic, 355 nm output of a burst-mode Nd:YAG laser with a 130 mJ/pulse is expanded to 30 mm diameter for volume illumination of the base region of a methane-hydrogen jet diffusion flame. Eight simultaneous images from different viewing angles are used to collect the resulting fluorescence signal for reconstruction of 200 time-sequential three-dimensional volumes over 10 ms duration. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of 300:1 is achieved after reconstruction with a temporal resolution of 100 ns and spatial resolution of 0.85-1.5 mm.

Mixture-fraction measurements with femtosecond-laser electronic-excitation tagging.

Tracer-free mixture-fraction measurements were demonstrated in a jet using femtosecond-laser electronic-excitation tagging. Measurements were conducted across a turbulent jet at several downstream locations both in a pure-nitrogen jet exiting into an air-nitrogen mixture and in a jet containing an air-nitrogen mixture exiting into pure nitrogen. The signal was calibrated with known concentrations of oxygen in nitrogen. The spatial resolution of the measurement was ∼180 µm. The measurement uncertainty ranged from 5% to 15%, depending on the mixture fraction and location within the beam, under constant temperature and pressure conditions. The measurements agree with a mixture fraction of unity within the potential core of the jet and transition to the self-similar region.

High-speed, two-dimensional synchrotron white-beam x-ray radiography of spray breakup and atomization.

High-speed, two-dimensional synchrotron x-ray radiography and phase-contrast imaging are demonstrated in propulsion sprays. Measurements are performed at the 7-BM beamline at the Advanced Photon Source user facility at Argonne National Laboratory using a recently developed broadband x-ray white beam. This novel enhancement allows for high speed, high fidelity x-ray imaging for the community at large. Quantitative path-integrated liquid distributions and spatio-temporal dynamics of the sprays were imaged with a LuAG:Ce scintillator optically coupled to a high-speed CMOS camera. Images are collected with a microscope objective at frame rates of 20 kHz and with a macro lens at 120 kHz, achieving spatial resolutions of 12 µm and 65 µm, respectively. Imaging with and without potassium iodide (KI) as a contrast-enhancing agent is compared, and the effects of broadband attenuation and spatial beam characteristics are determined through modeling and experimental calibration. In addition, phase contrast is used to differentiate liquid streams with varying concentrations of KI. The experimental approach is applied to different spray conditions, including quantitative measurements of mass distribution during primary atomization and qualitative visualization of turbulent binary fluid mixing.

Single-shot, volumetrically illuminated, three-dimensional, tomographic laser-induced-fluorescence imaging in a gaseous free jet.

Single-shot, tomographic imaging of the three-dimensional concentration field is demonstrated in a turbulent gaseous free jet in co-flow using volumetrically illuminated laser-induced fluorescence. The fourth-harmonic output of an Nd:YAG laser at 266 nm is formed into a collimated 15 × 20 mm2 beam to excite the ground singlet state of acetone seeded into the central jet. Subsequent fluorescence is collected along eight lines of sight for tomographic reconstruction using a combination of stereoscopes optically coupled to four two-stage intensified CMOS cameras. The performance of the imaging system is evaluated and shown to be sufficient for recording instantaneous three-dimensional features with high signal-to-noise (130:1) and nominal spatial resolution of 0.6-1.5 mm at x/D = 7-15.5.

Selective two-photon absorptive resonance femtosecond-laser electronic-excitation tagging velocimetry.

Selective two-photon absorptive resonance femtosecond-laser electronic-excitation tagging (STARFLEET), a nonseeded ultrafast-laser-based velocimetry technique, is demonstrated in reactive and nonreactive flows. STARFLEET is pumped via a two-photon resonance in N2 using 202.25 nm 100 fs light. STARFLEET greatly reduces the per-pulse energy required (30 µJ/pulse) to generate the signature FLEET emission compared to the conventional FLEET technique (1.1 mJ/pulse). This reduction in laser energy results in less energy deposited in the flow, which allows for reduced flow perturbations (reactive and nonreactive), increased thermometric accuracy, and less severe damage to materials. Velocity measurements conducted in a free jet of N2 and in a premixed flame show good agreement with theoretical velocities, and further demonstrate the significantly less intrusive nature of STARFLEET.

High-speed, three-dimensional tomographic laser-induced incandescence imaging of soot volume fraction in turbulent flames.

High-speed, laser-based tomographic imaging of the three-dimensional time evolution of soot volume fraction in turbulent jet diffusion flames is demonstrated to be feasible at rates of 10 kHz or higher. The fundamental output of a burst-mode Nd:YAG laser with 1 J/pulse is utilized for volumetric impulsive heating of soot particles with a laser fluence of 0.1 J/cm2, enabling signal-to-noise ratios of ~100:1 in images of the resulting incandescence. The three-dimensional morphology of the soot distribution is captured with a spatial resolution of <1.5 mm using as few as four viewing angles, with convergence of the soot volume fraction to within ~95% occurring with seven or more viewing angles. Uniqueness of the solution is demonstrated using two sets of eight images captured at the same time instant, with agreement to >90% in peak values between the two sets. These data establish parameters for successful high-speed, three-dimensional imaging of the soot volume fraction within highly transient combustion environments.

Quantitative time-averaged gas and liquid distributions using x-ray fluorescence and radiography in atomizing sprays.

A method for quantitative measurements of gas and liquid distributions is demonstrated using simultaneous x-ray fluorescence and radiography of both phases in an atomizing coaxial spray. Synchrotron radiation at 10.1 keV from the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory is used for x-ray fluorescence of argon gas and two tracer elements seeded into the liquid stream. Simultaneous time-resolved x-ray radiography combined with time-averaged dual-tracer fluorescence measurements enabled corrections for reabsorption of x-ray fluorescence photons for accurate, line-of-sight averaged measurements of the distribution of the gas and liquid phases originating from the atomizing nozzle.

Quantitative measurement of binary liquid distributions using multiple-tracer x-ray fluorescence and radiography.

The complex geometry and large index-of-refraction gradients that occur near the point of impingement of binary liquid jets present a challenging environment for optical interrogation. A simultaneous quadruple-tracer x-ray fluorescence and line-of-sight radiography technique is proposed as a means of distinguishing and quantifying individual liquid component distributions prior to, during, and after jet impact. Two different pairs of fluorescence tracers are seeded into each liquid stream to maximize their attenuation ratio for reabsorption correction and differentiation of the two fluids during mixing. This approach for instantaneous correction of x-ray fluorescence reabsorption is compared with a more time-intensive approach of using stereographic reconstruction of x-ray attenuation along multiple lines of sight. The proposed methodology addresses the need for a quantitative measurement technique capable of interrogating optically complex, near-field liquid distributions in many mixing systems of practical interest involving two or more liquid streams.