Functional near-infrared spectroscopy measures of neural activity in children with and without developmental language disorder during a working memory task.

INTRODUCTION: Children with developmental language disorder (DLD) exhibit cognitive deficits that interfere with their ability to learn language. Little is known about the functional neuroanatomical differences between children developing typically (TD) and children with DLD. METHODS: Using functional near-infrared spectroscopy, we recorded oxygenated hemoglobin (O2 hb) concentration values associated with neural activity in children with and without DLD during an auditory N-back task that included 0-back, 1-back, and 2-back conditions. Analyses focused on the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and left inferior parietal lobule (IPL). Multilevel models were constructed with accuracy, response time, and O2 hb as outcome measures, with 0-back outcomes as fixed effects to control for sustained attention. RESULTS: Children with DLD were significantly less accurate than their TD peers at both the 1-back and 2-back tasks, and they demonstrated slower response times during 2-back. In addition, children in the TD group demonstrated significantly greater sensitivity to increased task difficulty, showing increased O2 hb to the IPL during 1-back and to the DLPFC during the 2-back, whereas the DLD group did not. A secondary analysis revealed that higher O2 hb in the DLPFC predicted better task accuracy across groups. CONCLUSION: When task difficulty increased, children with DLD failed to recruit the DLPFC for monitoring information and the IPL for processing information. Reduced memory capacity and reduced engagement likely contribute to the language learning difficulties of children with DLD.

Event-related correlates of evolving trust evaluations.

Accurate decisions about whether to trust someone are critical for adaptive social behavior. Previous research into trustworthiness decisions about face stimuli have focused on individuals. Here, decisions about groups of people are made cumulatively on the basis of sequences of faces. Participants chose to either increase or withdraw an initial investment in mock companies based on how trustworthy the company representatives (face stimuli) appeared. Companies were formed using participant trust ratings from the previous week, to create strong trustworthy, weak trustworthy, weak untrustworthy, and strong untrustworthy companies. Participants made faster, more accurate decisions for companies carrying stronger evidence (e.g., faces rated more extremely). Companies with more extreme ratings yielded faster decisions for untrustworthy than trustworthy companies, consistent with a negativity bias. Electrophysiological data revealed that amplitude of the P1 and P3 ERP components, linked to attentional processes, were largest for strong trustworthy faces. This suggests that evidence counter to bias draws special attention. In addition, the first face representing each company provoked larger amplitude P1, P3, and LPP than subsequent faces. This result suggests that when making social decisions about groups of people, the first person one meets receives the most attention.

Cortical Activation of Swallowing Using fNIRS: A Proof of Concept Study with Healthy Adults.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) could reliably identify cortical activation patterns as healthy adults engaged in single sip and continuous swallowing tasks. Thirty-three right-handed adults completed two functional swallowing tasks, one control jaw movement task, and one rest task while being imaged with fNIRS. Swallowing tasks included a single sip of 5 mL of water via syringe and continuous straw drinking. fNIRS patches for acquisition of neuroimaging data were placed parallel over left and right hemispheres. Stimuli presentation was controlled with set time intervals and audio instructions. Using a series of linear mixed effect models, results demonstrated clear cortical activation patterns during swallowing. The continuous swallowing task demonstrated significant differences in blood oxygenation and deoxygenation concentration values across nearly all regions examined, but most notably M1 in both hemispheres. Of note is that there were areas of greater activation, particularly on the right hemisphere, when comparing the single sip swallow to the jaw movement control and rest tasks. Results from the current study support the use of fNIRS during investigation of swallowing. The utilization of healthy adults as a method for acquiring normative data is vital for comparison purposes when investigating individuals with disorders, but also in the development of rehabilitation techniques. Identifying activation areas that pertain to swallowing will have important implications for individuals requiring dysphagia therapy.

An Examination of the Relationship Between Perfectionism and Neurological Functioning.

Clinical perfectionism is the rigid pursuit of high standards, interfering with functioning. Little research has explored neural patterns in clinical perfectionism. The present study explores neural correlates of clinical perfectionism, before and after receiving ten 50-minute, weekly sessions of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), as compared to low-perfectionist controls, in specific cortical structures: the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), right inferior parietal lobule (IPL). Participants in the perfectionist condition (n = 43) were from a randomized controlled trial evaluating ACT for clinical perfectionism and low-perfectionist controls were undergraduate students (n = 12). Participants completed three tasks (editing a passage, mirror image tracing, circle tracing) using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to measure neural activation. Results indicate that hin the DLPFC and MPFC of the perfectionists whereas activation in the other tasks were relatively similar. There were no differences were observed in the right DLPFC, MPFC, and right IPL between the posttreatment perfectionist and nonperfectionist control groups. Our findings suggest an unclear relationship between neural activation and perfectionism.

Use of Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy to Assess Syntactic Processing by Monolingual and Bilingual Adults and Children.

This exploratory study assessed the use of functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) to examine hemodynamic response patterns during sentence processing. Four groups of participants: monolingual English children, bilingual Chinese-English children, bilingual Chinese-English adults and monolingual English adults were given an agent selection syntactic processing task. Bilingual child participants were classified as simultaneous or sequential bilinguals to examine the impact of first language, age of second-language acquisition (AoL2A), and the length of second language experience on behavioral performance and cortical activation. Participants were asked to select the agent of four types of sentences: subject-verb-object (SVO), passive (PAS), subject-extracted relative clause (SR), and object-extracted relative clause (OR) adopted from the "Whatdunit" task by Montgomery et al. (2016). Semantic cues were removed by using inanimate nouns for agents and patients, which constrained participants to make decisions based on syntactic knowledge. Behavioral results showed greater accuracy for canonical SVO and SR sentence types than for noncanonical OR and PAS sentence types, which aligns with prior studies. Neuroimaging results revealed greater hemodynamic responses to relative clauses (i.e., SR and OR sentences) than to simple sentences (SVO and PAS), especially for Chinese-English bilinguals suggesting first-language transfer influencing sentence processing in English. The effects AoL2A and the length of second language experience showed no significant differences between simultaneous and sequential bilinguals or between bilingual adults and children for identifying the correct agent in each sentence. However, neuroimaging results demonstrated greater hemodynamic responses in right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and left inferior parietal lobule (IPL) in simultaneous bilinguals compared to sequential bilinguals and greater hemodynamic responses in left and right DLPFC and left IPL among bilingual adults. Different behavioral and neural hemodynamic response patterns afford new insights into the effects of syntactic knowledge on sentence processing.

Natural Categorization: Electrophysiological Responses to Viewing Natural Versus Built Environments.

Environments are unique in terms of structural composition and evoked human experience. Previous studies suggest that natural compared to built environments may increase positive emotions. Humans in natural environments also demonstrate greater performance on attention-based tasks. Few studies have investigated cortical mechanisms underlying these phenomena or probed these differences from a neural perspective. Using a temporally sensitive electrophysiological approach, we employ an event-related, implicit passive viewing task to demonstrate that in humans, a greater late positive potential (LPP) occurs with exposure to built than natural environments, resulting in a faster return of activation to pre-stimulus baseline levels when viewing natural environments. Our research thus provides new evidence suggesting natural environments are perceived differently from built environments, converging with previous behavioral findings and theoretical assumptions from environmental psychology.

A functional near-infrared spectroscopic investigation of speech production during reading.

This study was designed to test the extent to which speaking processes related to articulation and voicing influence Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) measures of cortical hemodynamics and functional connectivity. Participants read passages in three conditions (oral reading, silent mouthing, and silent reading) while undergoing fNIRS imaging. Area under the curve (AUC) analyses of the oxygenated and deoxygenated hemodynamic response function concentration values were compared for each task across five regions of interest. There were significant region main effects for both oxy and deoxy AUC analyses, and a significant region × task interaction for deoxy AUC favoring the oral reading condition over the silent reading condition for two nonmotor regions. Assessment of functional connectivity using Granger Causality revealed stronger networks between motor areas during oral reading and stronger networks between language areas during silent reading. There was no evidence that the hemodynamic flow from motor areas during oral reading compromised measures of language-related neural activity in nonmotor areas. However, speech movements had small, but measurable effects on fNIRS measures of neural connections between motor and nonmotor brain areas across the perisylvian region, even after wavelet filtering. Therefore, researchers studying speech processes with fNIRS should use wavelet filtering during preprocessing to reduce speech motion artifacts, incorporate a nonspeech communication or language control task into the research design, and conduct a connectivity analysis to adequately assess the impact of functional speech on the hemodynamic response across the perisylvian region.