Phosphatidylserine on viable sperm and phagocytic machinery in oocytes regulate mammalian fertilization.

Fertilization is essential for species survival. Although Izumo1 and Juno are critical for initial interaction between gametes, additional molecules necessary for sperm:egg fusion on both the sperm and the oocyte remain to be defined. Here, we show that phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) is exposed on the head region of viable and motile sperm, with PtdSer exposure progressively increasing during sperm transit through the epididymis. Functionally, masking phosphatidylserine on sperm via three different approaches inhibits fertilization. On the oocyte, phosphatidylserine recognition receptors BAI1, CD36, Tim-4, and Mer-TK contribute to fertilization. Further, oocytes lacking the cytoplasmic ELMO1, or functional disruption of RAC1 (both of which signal downstream of BAI1/BAI3), also affect sperm entry into oocytes. Intriguingly, mammalian sperm could fuse with skeletal myoblasts, requiring PtdSer on sperm and BAI1/3, ELMO2, RAC1 in myoblasts. Collectively, these data identify phosphatidylserine on viable sperm and PtdSer recognition receptors on oocytes as key players in sperm:egg fusion.

Cooperation between Noncanonical Ras Network Mutations.

Cancer develops after the acquisition of a collection of mutations that together create the cancer phenotype. How collections of mutations work together within a cell and whether there is selection for certain combinations of mutations are not well understood. We investigated this problem with a mathematical model of the Ras signaling network, including a computational random mutagenesis. Modeling and subsequent experiments revealed that mutations of the tumor suppressor gene NF1 can amplify the effects of other Ras pathway mutations, including weakly activating, noncanonical Ras mutants. Furthermore, analyzing recently available, large, cancer genomic data sets uncovered increased co-occurrence of NF1 mutations with mutations in other Ras network genes. Overall, these data suggest that combinations of Ras pathway mutations could serve the role of cancer "driver." More generally, this work suggests that mutations that result in network instability may promote cancer in a manner analogous to genomic instability.

Biomarkers associated with metastasis of lung cancer to brain predict patient survival.

MicroRNAs influence cell physiology; alteration in miRNA regulation can be implicated in carcinogenesis and disease progression. Generally, one miRNA is predicted to regulate several hundred genes, and as a result, miRNAs could serve as a better classifier than gene expression. We combine validated miRNA expression values with imaging features to classify NSCLC brain mets from non-brain mets and identify possible biomarkers of brain mets. This research involves comprehensive miRNA expression profiling, evaluation of normalisation techniques and combination of miRNA with imaging features FDG-PET/CT and CT Scan. The biomarkers were validated on an independent data set to predict potential brain mets.

Loss of the RhoGAP SRGP-1 promotes the clearance of dead and injured cells in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Multicellular animals rapidly clear dying cells from their bodies. Many of the pathways that mediate this cell removal are conserved through evolution. Here, we identify srgp-1 as a negative regulator of cell clearance in both Caenorhabditis elegans and mammalian cells. Loss of srgp-1 function results in improved engulfment of apoptotic cells, whereas srgp-1 overexpression inhibits apoptotic cell corpse removal. We show that SRGP-1 functions in engulfing cells and functions as a GTPase activating protein (GAP) for CED-10 (Rac1). Interestingly, loss of srgp-1 function promotes not only the clearance of already dead cells, but also the removal of cells that have been brought to the verge of death through sublethal apoptotic, necrotic or cytotoxic insults. In contrast, impaired engulfment allows damaged cells to escape clearance, which results in increased long-term survival. We propose that C. elegans uses the engulfment machinery as part of a primitive, but evolutionarily conserved, survey mechanism that identifies and removes unfit cells within a tissue.

Development of a fluorescence-based method for monitoring glucose catabolism and its potential use in a biomass hydrolysis assay.

BACKGROUND: The availability and low cost of lignocellulosic biomass has caused tremendous interest in the bioconversion of this feedstock into liquid fuels. One measure of the economic viability of the bioconversion process is the ease with which a particular feedstock is hydrolyzed and fermented. Because monitoring the analytes in hydrolysis and fermentation experiments is time consuming, the objective of this study was to develop a rapid fluorescence-based method to monitor sugar production during biomass hydrolysis, and to demonstrate its application in monitoring corn stover hydrolysis. RESULTS: Hydrolytic enzymes were used in conjunction with Escherichia coli strain CA8404 (a hexose and pentose-consuming strain), modified to produce green fluorescent protein (GFP). The combination of hydrolytic enzymes and a sugar-consuming organism minimizes feedback inhibition of the hydrolytic enzymes. We observed that culture growth rate as measured by change in culture turbidity is proportional to GFP fluorescence and total growth and growth rate depends upon how much sugar is present at inoculation. Furthermore, it was possible to monitor the course of enzymatic hydrolysis in near real-time, though there are instrumentation challenges in doing this. CONCLUSION: We found that instantaneous fluorescence is proportional to the bacterial growth rate. As growth rate is limited by the availability of sugar, the integral of fluorescence is proportional to the amount of sugar consumed by the microbe. We demonstrate that corn stover varieties can be differentiated based on sugar yields in enzymatic hydrolysis reactions using post-hydrolysis fluorescence measurements. Also, it may be possible to monitor fluorescence in real-time during hydrolysis to compare different hydrolysis protocols.

BAI1 is an engulfment receptor for apoptotic cells upstream of the ELMO/Dock180/Rac module.

Engulfment and subsequent degradation of apoptotic cells is an essential step that occurs throughout life in all multicellular organisms. ELMO/Dock180/Rac proteins are a conserved signalling module for promoting the internalization of apoptotic cell corpses; ELMO and Dock180 function together as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for the small GTPase Rac, and thereby regulate the phagocyte actin cytoskeleton during engulfment. However, the receptor(s) upstream of the ELMO/Dock180/Rac module are still unknown. Here we identify brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor 1 (BAI1) as a receptor upstream of ELMO and as a receptor that can bind phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells. BAI1 is a seven-transmembrane protein belonging to the adhesion-type G-protein-coupled receptor family, with an extended extracellular region and no known ligands. We show that BAI1 functions as an engulfment receptor in both the recognition and subsequent internalization of apoptotic cells. Through multiple lines of investigation, we identify phosphatidylserine, a key 'eat-me' signal exposed on apoptotic cells, as a ligand for BAI1. The thrombospondin type 1 repeats within the extracellular region of BAI1 mediate direct binding to phosphatidylserine. As with intracellular signalling, BAI1 forms a trimeric complex with ELMO and Dock180, and functional studies suggest that BAI1 cooperates with ELMO/Dock180/Rac to promote maximal engulfment of apoptotic cells. Last, decreased BAI1 expression or interference with BAI1 function inhibits the engulfment of apoptotic targets ex vivo and in vivo. Thus, BAI1 is a phosphatidylserine recognition receptor that can directly recruit a Rac-GEF complex to mediate the uptake of apoptotic cells.

ELMO1 and Dock180, a bipartite Rac1 guanine nucleotide exchange factor, promote human glioma cell invasion.

A distinct feature of malignant gliomas is the intrinsic ability of single tumor cells to disperse throughout the brain, contributing to the failure of existing therapies to alter the progression and recurrence of these deadly brain tumors. Regrettably, the mechanisms underlying the inherent invasiveness of glioma cells are poorly understood. Here, we report for the first time that engulfment and cell motility 1 (ELMO1) and dedicator of cytokinesis 1 (Dock180), a bipartite Rac1 guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF), are evidently linked to the invasive phenotype of glioma cells. Immunohistochemical analysis of primary human glioma specimens showed high expression levels of ELMO1 and Dock180 in actively invading tumor cells in the invasive areas, but not in the central regions of these tumors. Elevated expression of ELMO1 and Dock180 was also found in various human glioma cell lines compared with normal human astrocytes. Inhibition of endogenous ELMO1 and Dock180 expression significantly impeded glioma cell invasion in vitro and in brain tissue slices with a concomitant reduction in Rac1 activation. Conversely, exogenous expression of ELMO1 and Dock180 in glioma cells with low level endogenous expression increased their migratory and invasive capacity in vitro and in brain tissue. These data suggest that the bipartite GEF, ELMO1 and Dock180, play an important role in promoting cancer cell invasion and could be potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of diffuse malignant gliomas.

Characterization of a novel interaction between ELMO1 and ERM proteins.

ERMs are closely related proteins involved in cell migration, cell adhesion, maintenance of cell shape, and formation of microvilli through their ability to cross-link the plasma membrane with the actin cytoskeleton. ELMO proteins are also known to regulate actin cytoskeleton reorganization through activation of the small GTPbinding protein Rac via the ELMO-Dock180 complex. Here we showed that ERM proteins associate directly with ELMO1 as purified recombinant proteins in vitro and at endogenous levels in intact cells. We mapped ERM binding on ELMO1 to the N-terminal 280 amino acids, which overlaps with the region required for binding to the GTPase RhoG, but is distinct from the C-terminal Dock180 binding region. Consistent with this, ELMO1 could simultaneously bind both radixin and Dock180, although radixin did not alter Rac activation via the Dock180-ELMO complex. Most interestingly, radixin binding did not affect ELMO binding to active RhoG and a trimeric complex of active RhoG-ELMO-radixin could be detected. Moreover, the three proteins colocalized at the plasma membrane. Finally, in contrast to most other ERM-binding proteins, ELMO1 binding occurred independently of the state of radixin C-terminal phosphorylation, suggesting an ELMO1 interaction with both the active and inactive forms of ERM proteins and implying a possible role of ELMO in localizing or retaining ERM proteins in certain cellular sites. Together these data suggest that ELMO1-mediated cytoskeletal changes may be coordinated with ERM protein crosslinking activity during dynamic cellular functions.

Phagocytosis of apoptotic cells is regulated by a UNC-73/TRIO-MIG-2/RhoG signaling module and armadillo repeats of CED-12/ELMO.

BACKGROUND: Phagocytosis of cells undergoing apoptosis is essential during development, cellular turnover, and wound healing. Failure to promptly clear apoptotic cells has been linked to autoimmune disorders. C. elegans CED-12 and mammalian ELMO are evolutionarily conserved scaffolding proteins that play a critical role in engulfment from worm to human. ELMO functions together with Dock180 (a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rac) to mediate Rac-dependent cytoskeletal reorganization during engulfment and cell migration. However, the components upstream of ELMO and Dock180 during engulfment remain elusive. RESULTS: Here, we define a conserved signaling module involving the small GTPase RhoG and its exchange factor TRIO, which functions upstream of ELMO/Dock180/Rac during engulfment. Complementary studies in C. elegans show that MIG-2 (which we identify as the homolog of mammalian RhoG) and UNC-73 (the TRIO homolog) also regulate corpse clearance in vivo, upstream of CED-12. At the molecular level, we identify a novel set of evolutionarily conserved Armadillo (ARM) repeats within CED-12/ELMO that mediate an interaction with activated MIG-2/RhoG; this, in turn, promotes Dock180-mediated Rac activation and cytoskeletal reorganization. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of in vitro and in vivo studies presented here identify two evolutionarily conserved players in engulfment, TRIO/UNC73 and RhoG/MIG-2, and the TRIO --> RhoG signaling module is linked by ELMO/CED-12 to Dock180-dependent Rac activation during engulfment. This work also identifies ARM repeats within CED-12/ELMO and their role in linking RhoG and Rac, two GTPases that function in tandem during engulfment.

Nuclear localization of the DOCK180/ELMO complex.

DOCK180 protein plays a key role during development, cell motility, and phagocytosis. It forms a complex with another protein ELMO, and this complex acts as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for Rac. However, DOCK180-containing complexes have not been purified by unbiased biochemical approaches, and the nature and subcellular localization of these complexes remain unclear. Here, we show that a large fraction of endogenous DOCK180 is present as a 700kDa nuclear complex with ELMO proteins. In addition, this nuclear DOCK180/ELMO complex has functional Rac-GEF activity. Furthermore, endogenous DOCK180 could be found in complexes with different ELMO isoforms (ELMO1, 2 or 3) in different cell lines, depending on the ELMO isoforms expressed. These studies suggest that DOCK180 may associate with different ELMO proteins to form cell-type specific complexes and may have functions in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

PH domain of ELMO functions in trans to regulate Rac activation via Dock180.

The members of the Dock180 superfamily of proteins are novel guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEF) for Rho family GTPases and are linked to multiple biological processes from worms to mammals. ELMO is a critical regulator of Dock180, and the Dock180-ELMO complex functions as a bipartite GEF for Rac. We identified a mechanism wherein the PH domain of ELMO, by binding the Dock180-Rac complex in trans, stabilizes Rac in the nucleotide-free transition state. Mutagenesis studies reveal that this ELMO PH domain-dependent regulation is essential for the Dock180-ELMO complex to function in phagocytosis and cell migration. Genetic rescue studies in Caenorhabditis elegans using ELMO and its homolog CED-12 support the above observations in vivo. These data reveal a new mode of action of PH domains and a novel, evolutionarily conserved mechanism by which a bipartite GEF can activate Rac.

Dock180 and ELMO1 proteins cooperate to promote evolutionarily conserved Rac-dependent cell migration.

Cell migration is essential throughout embryonic and adult life. In numerous cell systems, the small GTPase Rac is required for lamellipodia formation at the leading edge and movement ability. However, the molecular mechanisms leading to Rac activation during migration are still unclear. Recently, a mammalian superfamily of proteins related to the prototype member Dock180 has been identified with homologues in Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans. Here, we addressed the role of Dock180 and ELMO1 proteins, which function as a complex to mediate Rac activation, in mammalian cell migration. Using mutants of Dock180 and ELMO1 in a Transwell assay as well as transgenic rescue of a C. elegans mutant lacking CED-5 (Dock180 homologue), we identified specific regions of Dock180 and ELMO1 required for migration in vitro and in a whole animal model. In both systems, the Dock180.ELMO1 complex formation and the ability to activate Rac were required. We also found that ELMO1 regulated multiple Dock180 superfamily members to promote migration. Interestingly, deletion mutants of ELMO1 missing their first 531 or first 330 amino acids that can still bind and cooperate with Dock180 in Rac activation failed to promote migration, which correlated with the inability to localize to lamellipodia. This finding suggests that Rac activation by the ELMO.Dock180 complex at discrete intracellular locations mediated by the N-terminal 330 amino acids of ELMO1 rather than generalized Rac activation plays a role in cell migration.

Regulation of the mesangial cell myofibroblast phenotype by actin polymerization.

Mesangial cells in diverse glomerular diseases become myofibroblast-like, characterized by activation of smooth muscle alpha-actin (alpha-SMA) expression. In cultured mesangial cells, serum-deprivation markedly increases alpha-SMA expression, cell size, and stress fiber formation. Since stress fibers are assembled from actin monomers, we investigated the hypothesis that alterations in stress fiber formation regulate alpha-SMA expression and hypertrophy. Human mesangial cells were treated with agents that disrupt or stabilize actin stress fibers. Depolymerization of actin stress fibers in serum-deprived cells with actin-depolymerizing agents, cytochalasin B (CytB) and latrunculin B (LatB), or with inhibitors of Rho-kinase, Y-27632 and HA-1077 decreased alpha-SMA mRNA as judged by Northern blot analysis. Western blot analysis showed that CytB also reduced alpha-SMA protein levels. In serum-fed cells, agents that stabilized actin stress fibers, jasplakinolide (Jas) and phalloidin, increased alpha-SMA mRNA and protein. Treatment of human or rat mesangial cells with CytB, LatB, or Y-27632 decreased alpha-SMA promoter activity. In contrast, Jas increased promoter activity 5.6-fold in rat mesangial cells. The presence of an RNA polymerase inhibitor blocked degradation of alpha-SMA mRNA in cells treated with CytB suggesting that destabilization of this message is dependent on a newly transcribed or rapidly degraded factor. Inhibition of actin polymerization by CytB, LatB, Y-27623, and HA-1077 inhibited incorporation of (3)[H]-leucine into newly synthesized protein. Additionally, CytB and LatB decreased cell volume as determined by flow cytometry. Collectively, these results indicate that the state of polymerization of the actin cytoskeleton regulates alpha-SMA expression, hypertrophy, and myofibroblast differentiation in mesangial cells.

Unconventional Rac-GEF activity is mediated through the Dock180-ELMO complex.

Mammalian Dock180 and ELMO proteins, and their homologues in Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster, function as critical upstream regulators of Rac during development and cell migration. The mechanism by which Dock180 or ELMO mediates Rac activation is not understood. Here, we identify a domain within Dock180 (denoted Docker) that specifically recognizes nucleotide-free Rac and can mediate GTP loading of Rac in vitro. The Docker domain is conserved among known Dock180 family members in metazoans and in a yeast protein. In cells, binding of Dock180 to Rac alone is insufficient for GTP loading, and a Dock180 ELMO1 interaction is required. We can also detect a trimeric ELMO1 Dock180 Rac1 complex and ELMO augments the interaction between Dock180 and Rac. We propose that the Dock180 ELMO complex functions as an unconventional two-part exchange factor for Rac.