A biomimetic hydrogel culture system to facilitate cardiac reprogramming.

Direct cardiac reprogramming, in which fibroblasts are converted into induced cardiomyocytes (iCMs) with cardiogenic transcription factors, may be a promising approach for myocardial regeneration. Here, we present a protocol for cardiac reprogramming using a handmade hydrogel culture system. This system can recapitulate substrate stiffness comparable to that of the native myocardium. This protocol features improved efficiency of cardiac reprogramming by generating threefold more beating iCMs on the Matrigel-based hydrogel culture system compared to that on conventional polystyrene dishes. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Kurotsu et al. (2020).

Mechanical load regulates bone growth via periosteal Osteocrin.

Mechanical stimuli including loading after birth promote bone growth. However, little is known about how mechanical force triggers biochemical signals to regulate bone growth. Here, we identified a periosteal-osteoblast-derived secretory peptide, Osteocrin (OSTN), as a mechanotransducer involved in load-induced long bone growth. OSTN produced by periosteal osteoblasts regulates growth plate growth by enhancing C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP)-dependent proliferation and maturation of chondrocytes, leading to elongation of long bones. Additionally, OSTN cooperates with CNP to regulate bone formation. CNP stimulates osteogenic differentiation of periosteal osteoprogenitors to induce bone formation. OSTN binds to natriuretic peptide receptor 3 (NPR3) in periosteal osteoprogenitors, thereby preventing NPR3-mediated clearance of CNP and consequently facilitating CNP-signal-mediated bone growth. Importantly, physiological loading induces Ostn expression in periosteal osteoblasts by suppressing Forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1) transcription factor. Thus, this study reveals a crucial role of OSTN as a mechanotransducer converting mechanical loading to CNP-dependent bone formation.

Stiffness of the extracellular matrix regulates differentiation into beige adipocytes.

Beige/brite adipocytes, which express high levels of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) to generate heat using stored triglycerides, are induced under specific stimuli such as cold exposure in inguinal white adipose tissue (iWAT). Although extracellular microenvironments such as extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness are known to regulate cell behaviors, including cell differentiation into adipocytes, the effect on iWAT cells is unknown. In this study, we show that rigid ECM promotes the cell spreading of iWAT-derived preadipocytes. Furthermore, the expression of UCP1 and other thermogenic genes in iWAT cells is promoted when the cells are cultured on rigid ECM. The expression of mTOR, a kinase known to regulate the differentiation to beige adipocytes, is decreased on rigid substrates. These results suggest that ECM stiffness plays an important role in the differentiation to beige adipocytes.

Soft Matrix Promotes Cardiac Reprogramming via Inhibition of YAP/TAZ and Suppression of Fibroblast Signatures.

Direct cardiac reprogramming holds great potential for regenerative medicine. However, it remains inefficient, and induced cardiomyocytes (iCMs) generated in vitro are less mature than those in vivo, suggesting that undefined extrinsic factors may regulate cardiac reprogramming. Previous in vitro studies mainly used hard polystyrene dishes, yet the effect of substrate rigidity on cardiac reprogramming remains unclear. Thus, we developed a Matrigel-based hydrogel culture system to determine the roles of matrix stiffness and mechanotransduction in cardiac reprogramming. We found that soft matrix comparable with native myocardium promoted the efficiency and quality of cardiac reprogramming. Mechanistically, soft matrix enhanced cardiac reprogramming via inhibition of integrin, Rho/ROCK, actomyosin, and YAP/TAZ signaling and suppression of fibroblast programs, which were activated on rigid substrates. Soft substrate further enhanced cardiac reprogramming with Sendai virus vectors via YAP/TAZ suppression, increasing the reprogramming efficiency up to ∼15%. Thus, mechanotransduction could provide new targets for improving cardiac reprogramming.

Local cyclical compression modulates macrophage function in situ and alleviates immobilization-induced muscle atrophy.

Physical inactivity gives rise to numerous diseases and organismal dysfunctions, particularly those related to aging. Musculoskeletal disorders including muscle atrophy, which can result from a sedentary lifestyle, aggravate locomotive malfunction and evoke a vicious circle leading to severe functional disruptions of vital organs such as the brain and cardiovascular system. Although the significance of physical activity is evident, molecular mechanisms behind its beneficial effects are poorly understood. Here, we show that massage-like mechanical interventions modulate immobilization-induced pro-inflammatory responses of macrophages in situ and alleviate muscle atrophy. Local cyclical compression (LCC) on mouse calves, which generates intramuscular pressure waves with amplitude of 50 mmHg, partially restores the myofiber thickness and contracting forces of calf muscles that are decreased by hindlimb immobilization. LCC tempers the increase in the number of cells expressing pro-inflammatory proteins, tumor necrosis factor-α and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), including macrophages in situ The reversing effect of LCC on immobilization-induced thinning of myofibers is almost completely nullified when macrophages recruited from circulating blood are depleted by administration of clodronate liposomes. Furthermore, application of pulsatile fluid shear stress, but not hydrostatic pressure, reduces the expression of MCP-1 in macrophages in vitro Together with the LCC-induced movement of intramuscular interstitial fluid detected by µCT analysis, these results suggest that mechanical modulation of macrophage function is involved in physical inactivity-induced muscle atrophy and inflammation. Our findings uncover the implication of mechanosensory function of macrophages in disuse muscle atrophy, thereby opening a new path to develop a novel therapeutic strategy utilizing mechanical interventions.

Substrate Stiffness Influences Doxorubicin-Induced p53 Activation via ROCK2 Expression.

The physical properties of the extracellular matrix (ECM), such as stiffness, are involved in the determination of the characteristics of cancer cells, including chemotherapy sensitivity. Resistance to chemotherapy is often linked to dysfunction of tumor suppressor p53; however, it remains elusive whether the ECM microenvironment interferes with p53 activation in cancer cells. Here, we show that, in MCF-7 breast cancer cells, extracellular stiffness influences p53 activation induced by the antitumor drug doxorubicin. Cell growth inhibition by doxorubicin was increased in response to ECM rigidity in a p53-dependent manner. The expression of Rho-associated coiled coil-containing protein kinase (ROCK) 2, which induces the activation of myosin II, was significantly higher when cells were cultured on stiffer ECM substrates. Knockdown of ROCK2 expression or pharmacological inhibition of ROCK decreased doxorubicin-induced p53 activation. Our results suggest that a soft ECM causes downregulation of ROCK2 expression, which drives resistance to chemotherapy by repressing p53 activation.

MEKK1-dependent phosphorylation of calponin-3 tunes cell contractility.

MEKK1 (also known as MAP3K1), which plays a major role in MAPK signaling, has been implicated in mechanical processes in cells, such as migration. Here, we identify the actin-binding protein calponin-3 as a new MEKK1 substrate in the signaling that regulates actomyosin-based cellular contractility. MEKK1 colocalizes with calponin-3 at the actin cytoskeleton and phosphorylates it, leading to an increase in the cell-generated traction stress. MEKK1-mediated calponin-3 phosphorylation is attenuated by the inhibition of myosin II activity, the disruption of actin cytoskeletal integrity and adhesion to soft extracellular substrates, whereas it is enhanced upon cell stretching. Our results reveal the importance of the MEKK1-calponin-3 signaling pathway to cell contractility.

Activation of Yes-Associated Protein in Low-Grade Meningiomas Is Regulated by Merlin, Cell Density, and Extracellular Matrix Stiffness.

The NF2 gene product Merlin is a protein containing ezrin, radixin, and moesin domains; it is a member of the 4.1 protein superfamily associated with the membrane cytoskeleton and also interacts with cell surface molecules. The mammalian Hippo cascade, a downstream signaling cascade of merlin, inactivates the Yes-associated protein (YAP). Yes-associated protein is activated by loss of the NF2 gene and functions as an oncogene in meningioma cells; however, the factors controlling YAP expression, phosphorylation, and subcellular localization in meningiomas have not been fully elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that merlin expression is heterogeneous in 1 NF2 gene-negative and 3 NF2 gene-positive World Health Organization grade I meningiomas. In the NF2 gene-positive meningiomas, regions with low levels of merlin (tumor rims) had greater numbers of cells with nuclear YAP versus regions with high merlin levels (tumor cores). Merlin expression and YAP phosphorylation were also affected by cell density in the IOMM-Lee and HKBMM human meningioma cell lines; nuclear localization of YAP was regulated by cell density and extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness in IOMM-Lee cells. These results suggest that cell density and ECM stiffness may contribute to the heterogeneous loss of merlin and increased nuclear YAP expression in human meningiomas.

Coating extracellular matrix proteins on a (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane-treated glass substrate for improved cell culture.

We demonstrate that a (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane-treated glass surface is superior to an untreated glass surface for coating with extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins when used as a cell culture substrate to observe cell physiology and behavior. We found that MDCK cells cultured on untreated glass coated with ECM removed the coated ECM protein and secreted different ECM proteins. In contrast, the cells did not remove the coated ECM protein when seeded on (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane-treated (i.e., silanized) glass coated with ECM. Furthermore, the morphology and motility of cells grown on silanized glass differed from those grown on non-treated glass, even when both types of glass were initially coated with laminin. We also found that cells on silanized glass coated with laminin had higher motility than those on silanized glass coated with fibronectin. Based on our results, we suggest that silanized glass is a more suitable cell culture substrate than conventional non-treated glass when coated by ECM for observations of ECM effects on cell physiology.

p53-mediated activation of the mitochondrial protease HtrA2/Omi prevents cell invasion.

Oncogenic Ras induces cell transformation and promotes an invasive phenotype. The tumor suppressor p53 has a suppressive role in Ras-driven invasion. However, its mechanism remains poorly understood. Here we show that p53 induces activation of the mitochondrial protease high-temperature requirement A2 (HtrA2; also known as Omi) and prevents Ras-driven invasion by modulating the actin cytoskeleton. Oncogenic Ras increases accumulation of p53 in the cytoplasm, which promotes the translocation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) into mitochondria and induces phosphorylation of HtrA2/Omi. Concurrently, oncogenic Ras also induces mitochondrial fragmentation, irrespective of p53 expression, causing the release of HtrA2/Omi from mitochondria into the cytosol. Phosphorylated HtrA2/Omi therefore cleaves ß-actin and decreases the amount of filamentous actin (F-actin) in the cytosol. This ultimately down-regulates p130 Crk-associated substrate (p130Cas)-mediated lamellipodia formation, countering the invasive phenotype initiated by oncogenic Ras. Our novel findings provide insights into the mechanism by which p53 prevents the malignant progression of transformed cells.

Design and construction of an equibiaxial cell stretching system that is improved for biochemical analysis.

We describe the design and validation of an equibiaxial stretching device in which cells are confined to regions of homogeneous strain. Using this device, we seek to overcome a significant limitation of existing equibiaxial stretching devices, in which strains are not homogeneous over the entire region of cell culture. We cast PDMS in a mold to produce a membrane with a cylindrical wall incorporated in the center, which was used to confine cell monolayers to the central membrane region subjected to homogeneous equibiaxial strain. We demonstrated that the presence of the wall to hold the culture medium did not affect strain homogeneity over the majority of the culture surface and also showed that cells adhered well onto the PDMS membranes. We used our device in cyclic strain experiments and demonstrated strain-dependent changes in extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and tyrosine phosphorylation upon cell stretching. Furthermore, we examined cell responses to very small magnitudes of strain ranging from 1% to 6% and were able to observe a graduated increase in ERK phosphorylation in response to these strains. Collectively, we were able to study cellular biochemical response with a high degree of accuracy and sensitivity to fine changes in substrate strain. Because we have designed our device along the lines of existing equibiaxial stretching technologies, we believe that our innovations can be incorporated into existing systems. This device would provide a useful addition to the set of tools applied for in vitro studies of cell mechanobiology.

The role of the interaction of the vinculin proline-rich linker region with vinexin α in sensing the stiffness of the extracellular matrix.

Although extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness is an important aspect of the extracellular microenvironment and is known to direct the lineage specification of stem cells and affect cancer progression, the molecular mechanisms that sense ECM stiffness have not yet been elucidated. In this study, we show that the proline-rich linker (PRL) region of vinculin and the PRL-region-binding protein vinexin are involved in sensing the stiffness of ECM substrates. A rigid substrate increases the level of cytoskeleton-associated vinculin, and the fraction of vinculin stably localizing at focal adhesions (FAs) is larger on rigid ECM than on soft ECM. Mutations in the PRL region or the depletion of vinexin expression impair these responses to ECM stiffness. Furthermore, vinexin depletion impairs the stiffness-dependent regulation of cell migration. These results suggest that the interaction of the PRL region of vinculin with vinexin α plays a crucial role in sensing ECM stiffness and in mechanotransduction.

Dynamic chemotactic response of fibroblasts to local stimulation using EGF-immobilized microbeads.

Directional cellular migrations as a chemotactic response to spatially inhomogeneous growth factor stimulation play an important role in establishing physiological mechanisms and pathological events in cells. We developed epidermal growth factor (EGF)-immobilized microbeads by photoreaction and evaluated its local stimulatory effects on the dynamic chemotactic motility of fibroblasts. The local stimulation resulted in global activation of ERK 1/2 and directionality of cellular migration. The cellular migration by stimulation using 3-µm diameter EGF-immobilized microbeads persisted for a longer time, were involved a wider field and their number were further increased with stimulation. This effective technique allows cellular migration and biochemical analyses that will help elucidate the mechanisms involved in signal transduction by spatially inhomogeneous stimulation of the growth factor.

Substrate stiffness regulates temporary NF-κB activation via actomyosin contractions.

Physical properties of the extracellular matrix (ECM) can control cellular phenotypes via mechanotransduction, which is the process of translation of mechanical stresses into biochemical signals. While current research is clarifying the relationship between mechanotransduction and cytoskeleton or adhesion complexes, the contribution of transcription factors to mechanotransduction is not well understood. The results of this study revealed that the transcription factor NF-κB, a major regulator for immunoreaction and cancer progression, is responsive to substrate stiffness. NF-κB activation was temporarily induced in H1299 lung adenocarcinoma cells grown on a stiff substrate but not in cells grown on a soft substrate. Although the activation of NF-κB was independent of the activity of integrin ß1, an ECM-binding protein, the activation was dependent on actomyosin contractions induced by phosphorylation of myosin regulatory light chain (MRLC). Additionally, the inhibition of MRLC phosphorylation by Rho kinase inhibitor Y27632 reduced the activity of NF-κB. We also observed substrate-specific morphology of the cells, with cells grown on the soft substrate appearing more rounded and cells grown on the stiff substrate appearing more spread out. Inhibiting NF-κB activation caused a reversal of these morphologies on both substrates. These results suggest that substrate stiffness regulates NF-κB activity via actomyosin contractions, resulting in morphological changes.

Leachate tests with sewage sludge contaminated by radioactive cesium.

The sewer systems of eastern Japan have transported radioactive fallout from the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant accident to wastewater treatment plants, where the radioisotopes have accumulated. To better understand the potential problems associated with the disposal of contaminated sewage sludge in landfills, leachate tests were conducted with radioactive incinerator ash, cement solidification incinerator ash, and dewatered sludge cake. Radioactivity was undetectable in the eluate from incinerator ash and dewatered sludge cake, but about 30% of the radioactivity initially in cement solidification incinerator ash appeared in the eluate during the leaching experiments. Moreover, modification of test conditions revealed that the presence of Ca(2+) ions and strong alkali in the water that contacted the incinerator ash enhanced leaching of cesium. Lastly, the capacity of pit soil to absorb radioactive cesium was estimated to be at least 3.0 Bq/g (dry).

Cellular response to substrate rigidity is governed by either stress or strain.

Cells sense the rigidity of their substrate; however, little is known about the physical variables that determine their response to this rigidity. Here, we report traction stress measurements carried out using fibroblasts on polyacrylamide gels with Young's moduli ranging from 6 to 110 kPa. We prepared the substrates by employing a modified method that involves N-acryloyl-6-aminocaproic acid (ACA). ACA allows for covalent binding between proteins and elastomers and thus introduces a more stable immobilization of collagen onto the substrate when compared to the conventional method of using sulfo-succinimidyl-6-(4-azido-2-nitrophenyl-amino) hexanoate (sulfo-SANPAH). Cells remove extracellular matrix proteins off the surface of gels coated using sulfo-SANPAH, which corresponds to lower values of traction stress and substrate deformation compared to gels coated using ACA. On soft ACA gels (Young's modulus <20 kPa), cell-exerted substrate deformation remains constant, independent of the substrate Young's modulus. In contrast, on stiff substrates (Young's modulus >20 kPa), traction stress plateaus at a limiting value and the substrate deformation decreases with increasing substrate rigidity. Sustained substrate strain on soft substrates and sustained traction stress on stiff substrates suggest these may be factors governing cellular responses to substrate rigidity.

Src, p130Cas, and Mechanotransduction in Cancer Cells.

Anchorage-independent growth is the most significant hallmark of cell transformation, which has an intimate relevance to cancer. Anchorage or adhesion physically links cells to the extracellular matrix and allows the transmission of external mechanical cues to intracellular signaling machineries. Transformation involves acquiring the ability to proliferate without requiring mechanically initiated signal transduction, known as mechanotransduction. A number of signaling and cytoskeletal molecules are located at focal adhesions. Src and its related proteins, including p130Cas, localize to adhesion sites, where their functions can be mechanically regulated. In addition, the aberrant activation and expression of Src and p130Cas are linked to transformation and malignancy both in vitro and in vivo. These findings shed light on the importance of mechanotransduction in tumorigenesis and the regulation of cancer progression and also provide insights into the mechanical aspects of cancer signaling.

[Space flight/bedrest immobilization and bone. Mechanical stress : a double-edged sword to osteoarthritis].

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a disease caused by the degeneration and destruction of joint cartilage followed by peri-articular or subchondral bone formation and concomitant degeneration of other components of joints including synovium. Several animal OA models that adopt surgically induced joint instability have been developed. Analysis of those OA models indicates that increased mechanical stress exacerbates OA. In contrast, the effectiveness of physical therapy to alleviate OA symptoms suggests that optimal mechanical stimulation can impede the progression of OA. We propose that there are two facets of mechanical stress in light of the influence on OA ; one is detrimental, whilst the other is beneficial for articular cartilage and other joint compositions. From the malalignment and incongruity that underlie hip OA succeeding to congenital hip dislocation (acetabular hypoplasia) and the varus (or valgus) deformity observed in knee OA, shear force appears to prone to be a villain mechanical stress. On the other hand, compressive force may facilitate the maintenance or turnover of the articular cartilage unless it becomes excessive. Although essential differences between detrimental and beneficial mechanical stresses remain elusive, we speculate that the degree or magnitude of the deformation of mechano-sensor(s) may be crucial. Uncovering the mechano-sensing machinery in joints may demarcate the beneficial mechanical stress, and bring about a paradigm shift in the therapeutic strategy for OA.

Dual inhibition of Src and GSK3 maintains mouse embryonic stem cells, whose differentiation is mechanically regulated by Src signaling.

Recent studies reveal that the mechanical environment influences the behavior and function of various types of cells, including stem cells. However, signaling pathways involved in the mechanical regulation of stem cell properties remain largely unknown. Using polyacrylamide gels with varying Young's moduli as substrates, we demonstrate that mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) are induced to differentiate on substrates with defined elasticity, involving the Src-ShcA-MAP kinase pathway. While the dual inhibition of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase and glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), termed "2i," was reported to sustain the pluripotency of mESCs, we find it to be substrate elasticity dependent. In contrast, Src inhibition in addition to 2i allows mESCs to retain their pluripotency independent of substrate elasticity. The alternative dual inhibition of Src and GSK3 ("alternative 2i") retains the pluripotency and self-renewal of mESCs in vitro and is instrumental in efficiently deriving mESCs from preimplantation mouse embryos. In addition, the transplantation of mESCs, maintained under the alternative 2i condition, to immunodeficient mice leads to the formation of teratomas that include differentiation into three germ layers. Furthermore, mESCs established with alternative 2i contributed to chimeric mice production and transmitted to the germline. These results reveal a role for Src-ShcA-MAP kinase signaling in the mechanical regulation of mESC properties and indicate that alternative 2i is a versatile tool for the maintenance of mESCs in serum-free conditions as well as for the derivation of mESCs.

Local mechanical stimulation of Mardin-Darby canine kidney cell sheets on temperature-responsive hydrogel.

Collective motion of cell sheets plays a role not only in development and repair, but also in devastating diseases such as cancer. However, unlike single-cell motility, collective motion of cell sheets involves complex cell-cell communication during migration; therefore, its mechanism is largely unknown. To elucidate propagation of signaling transduced by cell-cell interaction, we designed a hydrogel substrate that can cause local mechanical stretching of cell sheets. Poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide) (PNIPAAm) hydrogel is a temperature-responsive polymer gel whose volume changes isotropically in response to temperature changes below 37 °C. We designed a combined hydrogel substrate consisting of collagen-immobilized PNIPAAm as the local stimulation side and polyacrylamide (PAAm) as the non-stimulation side to assess propagation of mechanical transduction. Mardin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells adhered to the collagen-immobilized PNIPAAm gel increased it area and were flattened as the gel swelled with temperature decrease. E-cadherin in these cells became undetectable in some domains, and actin stress fibers were more clearly observed at the cell base. In contrast, E-cadherin in cells adhered to the collagen-immobilized PAAm side was equally stained as that in cells adhered to the collagen-immobilized PAAm side even after temperature decrease. ERK1/2 MAPK activation of cells on the non-stimulated substrate occurred after partial stretching of the cell sheet suggesting the propagation of signaling. These results indicate that a change in the balance of mechanical tension induced by partial stretching of cell sheets leads to activation and propagation of the cell signaling.