Further validation of the shame and guilt scales of the Harder Personal Feelings Questionnaire-2.

Previous research using the Harder Personal Feelings Questionnaire-2 has generally supported the validity of its subscales for the measurement of the traits of proneness to shame and guilt. This study extended the construct validity by investigating hypothesized relationships between scores on the questionnaire and several personality constructs not previously examined, including attachment style, the five personality factors assessed by the NEO-Five Factor Inventory, Sensation Seeking and Positive Affect (both from the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List-Revised). Shame and guilt scales were each expected to correlate inversely with secure attachment, Extraversion, Openness, Sensation Seeking (uninhibitidness), and Positive Affect, while they were predicted to correlate positively with Neuroticism from the NEO measure. Shame was expected to show stronger relationships than guilt with Extraversion, Openness, and Sensation Seeking. For the 41 college students results were mostly as predicted, even after shame and guilt scores were partialled for each other, thereby providing further evidence for the construct validity of the Personal Feelings Questionnaire-2 scales.

Fantasies, coping behavior, and psychopathology.

This study assessed whether consistent relationships exist between the content of self-reported coping behaviors, sustaining fantasies, and ordinary daydreams. A second goal was the identification of coping behaviors associated with psychopathology and an exploration of connections between coping behaviors, fantasies, and daydreams correlated with pathology. College students (N = 119) completed the Tanck and Robbins Coping Behaviors Scale, the Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire, and 12 Imaginal Processes Inventory scales. Pearson correlations indicated strong support for similar content between coping behaviors and the two types of fantasy. Previously reported relationships between coping behaviors and psychopathology were replicated. Significant intercorrelations were found between sustaining fantasies, daydreams, and coping behaviors that, separately, were found to be significantly associated with psychopathology.

Sustaining fantasies, daydreams, and psychopathology.

This study compared daydreaming to fantasies used for self-comfort at times of stress in order to assess the degree of overlap in content between the two types of fantasy and to determine what types of daydreams are associated with indices of psychopathology. One hundred nineteen college undergraduates completed the Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire (Zelin et al., 1983) and the Imaginal Processes Inventory (Singer & Antrobus, 1972), along with five general measures of maladjustment, which reflect ideational deviance, low or unstable self-concept, and reliance upon regressive defenses. The results supported the hypotheses of considerable overlap in content and of parallels between the two types of fantasy. Three IPI scales--Fear Reaction, Bizarre, and Hostile--were observed to be particularly linked to psychopathology.

Sustaining fantasies and psychopathology in a normal sample.

This study tested the hypothesis that the types of sustaining fantasy (fantasy used as a source of comfort at times of high stress) previously found to be associated with inpatient status also would be related to indications of psychopathology in a college sample (N = 124). The Sustaining Fantasy Questionnaire (SFQ; Zelin et al., 1983) provided a measure of fantasies of power/revenge, death/illness, withdrawal/protection, suffering, love/closeness, and restitution. The F scale of the MMPI and the number of MMPI clinical scales at or above 70 were used as the measures of general pathology. Results indicated that four of the hypothesized six types of fantasy-power/revenge, death/illness, withdrawal/protection, and suffering-related to psychopathology. No specific configuration of scores on the MMPI clinical scales was noted for any of these four types of fantasy.

Outcome predictors in a longitudinal study of high-risk boys.

This study of "high risk" investigated a 3-year follow-up sample of boys in the University of Rochester Child and Family Study of intact families in which at least one parent had been hospitalized for a psychiatric disorder. These families and their sons were studied in order to identify predictive factors for child outcome. Best-functioning (n = 17) and worst-functioning (n = 13) groups of boys (from a total N = 94) were differentiated successfully by time 1 parent and family interaction predictors. These variables included several measures of parent deviant communication and balanced/warm family interaction, chronicity and level of parent pathology, and socioeconomic class. Parent diagnosis was not associated significantly with outcome.

Additional validity evidence for the Harder Personal Feelings Questionnaire-2 (PFQ2): a measure of shame and guilt proneness.

The present study sought to provide additional evidence for the construct validity of the Harder (Harder & Zalma, 1990) Personal Feelings Questionnaire-2 (PFQ2), a recently revised measure of shame and guilt proneness. Seventy university students, 35 male and 35 female, completed the PFQ2 and scales that assess self-derogation, instability of self-concept, shyness, social anxiety, public self-consciousness, private self-consciousness, and locus of control. The correlation results were generally consistent with validity predictions. As in previous studies, however, the discriminant validity of the shame and guilt scales was supported, but not strongly.

Assessment of shame and guilt and their relationships to psychopathology.

Two studies are reported. First, we tested the previously validated Personal Feelings Questionnaire-2 (PFQ2; Harder & Zalma, 1990) shame and guilt measure and the Adapted Shame and Guilt Scale (ASGS; Hoblitzelle, 1982) Shame subscale against the newly introduced Self-Conscious Affect and Attribution Inventory (SCAAI; Tangney, 1990) for shame and guilt dispositions. Fifty-nine college undergraduates completed randomly ordered personality inventories reflecting constructs theoretically relevant to the presence of shame and guilt proneness. Correlations between the affect measures and personality variables showed evidence of validity for all shame scales. The PFQ2 Guilt subscale also demonstrated construct validity when partialled for shame, but the SCAAI did not. Second, we tested hypotheses regarding the relative importance of shame and guilt to various symptom types (Symptom Checklist-90-Revised; Derogatis, 1983) using 71 college undergraduates. Both emotions were approximately equally related to all major symptom clusters, but there was some evidence for differential patterns of relative importance for shame and guilt to different symptoms.

A construct validation study of the Haan defense scales.

This study tested the validity of the Haan (1965) psychological defense scales, which have shown promise for clinical and research assessment. Three subject samples participated: ex-inpatients (n = 80) from a longitudinal high-risk project, their spouses (n = 104), and private college students (n = 124). Valid defense scales were predicted to show a specific pattern of correlations with MMPI ego-strength and standard scales across all three cohorts, with measures of symptoms among the ex-inpatients, and with overall severity of pathology for all groups in a pattern consistent with Vaillant's defense model. The regression scale showed excellent validity, and projection received equivocal support, but the other scales were not validated. Denial appeared to reflect psychological health.

Parent, family interaction, and child predictors of outcome among sons at psychiatric risk.

This study was a longitudinal investigation of 95 families who previously had experienced the psychiatric hospitalization of a parent. Promising and/or proven parent, family interaction, and child predictors of 3-year outcome for the male offspring (beginning ages, 4, 7, and 10) were evaluated comparatively with correlations and multiple regressions. Among parent variables, chronicity of parent disorder and the degree of recovery between acute phases of disorder were broadly predictive of six diverse outcome indices. Variables that reflected diagnostic classifications were notably less successful. Time 1 child IQ was the best preditor of outcome, independent of all others; family interaction quality and degree of recovery were also prominent.

A comparison of four measures to diagnose DSM-III-R borderline personality disorder in outpatients.

After three decades of clinical controversy and research, a clinical consensus has formed that borderline personality disorder (BPD) exists as a unique entity which can be defined by DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relative abilities of four different approaches to the identification of borderlines and to differentiate a DSM-III-R BPD group from a control group of other diagnoses. The approaches were the Kernberg's Structural Interview, the Diagnostic Interview for Borderline Personality Disorders (DIB), the Borderline Syndrome Index (BSI), and the Million Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI). Sixty outpatient volunteers (27 men and 33 women) from a community mental health center served as subjects. The volunteers included 30 BPDs and 30 other diagnoses, including 11 non-BPD personality disorders. Point biserial correlations indicated that the best method for identifying DSM-III-R BPD was the DIB, and the second best was the Kernberg Structural Interview, although all four identified DSM-III-R BPDs at better than chance levels. Multiple regression results showed that the DIB accounted for 61.5% of the BPD variance, while the Kernberg approach added 4.9% more unique variance prediction. MCMI dimensions and personal history characteristics were used to identify differentiators of BPD from all other diagnoses and from other personality disorders.

The Sexual Desire Conflict Scale for Women: construction, internal consistency, and two initial validity tests.

The development of a 33-item Sexual Desire Conflict Scale for Women is described. The scale was designed to measure women's experiences of subjective discomfort and conflict in relation to sexual desire. 54 women participated: 18 survivors of childhood sexual abuse, 18 survivors of nonsexual trauma, 18 controls with no histories of trauma. Three factors accounted for 25.6, 12.9 and 7.6% of the variance. While no social desirability confounding was detected, the three groups had very different scores. Suggestions for research and clinical application are made.

Factor structure of the MCMI among personality disordered outpatients and in other populations.

This study examined the factor structure of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI) for a sample (N = 60), which consisted largely of personality disordered outpatients. Results are integrated with previous studies to identify the underlying MCMI dimensions across differing psychiatric populations. Three principal axis Varimax rotated factors emerged from the current study: affectively charged general maladjustment; impulsive acting-out style; and psychotically tinged isolation. Comparison with results of previous studies that involved four diverse samples indicated a large amount of stability for scales that load on the first factor. Factor two shows much less consistency across the five studies, but frequent reappearance of the drug abuse and other acting-out scales suggests a general dimension that reflects acting-out substance abuse. Across studies the third factor shows even more inconsistency, although there is some evidence for a social detachment pattern.

Predictors of two-year outcome among psychiatric outpatients.

This study hypothesized that social competence and clinical factors previously associated with psychiatric outcome among inpatients would be effective predictors of outcome among outpatients (N = 77) as well. Intake and 2-year outcome status were assessed multidimensionally with absolute-level and residualized indices of functioning, overall clinical status, and symptomatology. Menninger health-sickness proved to be the best single predictor, although Phillips premorbid functioning, Strauss-Carpenter prognosis, social class, and diagnostic severity also predicted well to outcome. Patterns of associated predictor/outcome variable clusters were described. Results suggest that a general social competence factor predicts to psychiatric outcome across the entire range of disorders, but that life events stress does not.

Predictors of outcome among adult psychiatric first-admissions.

This study comparatively evaluated the prognostic potential of 10 demographic and clinical factors previously associated with psychiatric outcome. The longitudinal design employed intensive, structured, reliable interview techniques. One hundred forty-five subjects from a representative sample (N = 217) of community mental health catchment area first lifetime admissions were assessed at hospitalization and at 2-year follow-up. Predictors examined included premorbid functioning, overall health-sickness, diagnostic severity, social class, sex, age, IQ, race, and life events. Outcome was assessed multidimensionally with absolute-level and residualized indices of functioning and symptomatology. Phillips Premorbid Status and social class emerged from correlation and multiple regression analyses as the best predictors of functioning level and overall clinical status, while IQ was the most prominent indicator of symptomatology changes. Results support the notion that a general social competence factor predicts to psychiatric outcome across the entire spectrum of severe disorders.

Life events and psychopathology severity: comparisons between psychiatric outpatients and inpatients.

Relationships between life events stress variables and seven indices of psychopathology severity for a group of 97 never-hospitalized outpatients were compared with those of a previously studied group of 217 first-admission functional disorder psychiatric inpatients from the same geographical catchment areas. The hypotheses tested were that degree of life events stress would be correlated positively with indices of psychopathological severity and that the magnitudes of association would be higher for the outpatients. Bivariate correlations and stepwise multiple regression with other potential demographic and prognostic moderator variables provided evidence for significant, but somewhat differing, patterns in outpatient vs. inpatient stress/pathology relationships. Contrary to prediction, the magnitudes of significant and near-significant associations between life events and pathology severity were not different in the two samples.

IQ as a prognostic indicator in adult psychiatric first-admissions.

This study used IQ, along with measures of premorbid adjustment, health-sickness, symptom level, diagnostic severity and demographic data, to predict to 2-year outcome measures of level of functioning, health-sickness, and symptoms for a sample of 145 adult psychiatric first-admissions. It was hypothesized that IQ as an indicator of cognitive ability, or of general ability to adapt, would predict positively to improvement over the 2-year period. Data analysis was conducted with bivariate correlations and multiple regressions, using both absolute-level and residualized outcome variables. IQ showed modest, significant relationships with all absolute outcome indices and six of seven residualized measures, especially for a subsample of those with non-average IQ scores. Regressions showed that IQ provided independent prediction of symptom outcomes.

Social class and psychiatric disorder. The examination of an extreme.

Relationships between social status and various aspects of mental disorder have been of long-standing interest to both clinicians and researchers, and a large body of literature exists attesting to the importance of social status in understanding psychiatric illness and disability. Reports examining social status and schizophrenia suggest that relationships between socioeconomic status and psychiatric illness may rest heavily upon differences between the lowest socioeconomic stratum and the remainder of society. To investigate the extent to which relationships between socioeconomic status and psychiatric illness and disability reflect differences between a deviant lowest socioeconomic stratum and the remainder of society, data from 217 patients hospitalized for psychiatric disorder and reassessed at a 2-year follow-up were examined. At initial assessment, 17 patient characteristics were found to be associated with socioeconomic status; for seven of these 17 characteristics, the largest difference between classes was found between the lowest and the adjacent (next-lowest) social class. At follow-up, for five of 15 characteristics found to be related to social class, the greatest interclass difference occurred between the lowest and the adjacent social class. Both initially and at follow-up, significant associations between patient characteristics and social class remained when the lowest social class patients were excluded from the analyses.

The Last-Weiss Rorschach Ego-Strength Scale as a prognostic measure for psychiatric outpatients.

This study tested the hypothesis that the Last and Weiss (1976) Rorschach Ego-Strength Scale (sigma E) would predict outcome among a representative sample of never-hospitalized psychiatric outpatients. 78 patients were assessed with structured symptom, psychiatric history, and social data interviews at the time of initial clinic contact and at 2-yr. follow-up. Outcome measures included the Menninger Health-Sickness Scale, a multidimensional variable involving social and work functioning and recent symptom level, symptom measures, and an index of diagnostic severity. sigma E, controlled for number of responses, correlated significantly with Health-Sickness, neurotic symptoms, diagnostic severity, and psychotic symptomatology. Among the components of sigma E, M+, and FC+ had significant relationships or contributed to significant relations with outcome variables. Considered with an earlier study of inpatients, in which S+ sigma E component correlated inversely with outcome, this study suggested that sigma E components have differing prognostic significance, depending on adaptational level of the patient.

Velten's mood induction technique: "real" change and the effects of personality and sex on affect state.

As an analogue approach to the study of depressed and elated mood formation, numerous investigators have attempted, with varying results, to induce mood in the laboratory by using variations of Velten's (1968) statements. Inconsistent results and theoretical doubts about situational demand influences have cast doubt on the efficacy of this technique. The present authors contend that "true" induction and the demand condition aspect of the technique both produce affect change. In addition, this study replicated Velten's original paradigm while it assessed the impact of personality traits, sex of subject, and different experimenters on mood inducibility. Ninety-five subjects completed pre-measures of self-esteem, locus of control, defense styles, and depression. Results show that the Velten technique appears to work independently of personality attributes in a college sample, although subject's sex and experimenter effects may well affect response to the induction.