Fire intensity impacts on physiological performance and mortality in Pinus monticola and Pseudotsuga menziesii saplings: a dose-response analysis.

Fire is a major cause of tree injury and mortality worldwide, yet our current understanding of fire effects is largely based on ocular estimates of stem charring and foliage discoloration, which are error prone and provide little information on underlying tree function. Accurate quantification of physiological performance is a research and forest management need, given that declining performance could help identify mechanisms of-and serve as an early warning sign for-mortality. Many previous efforts have been hampered by the inability to quantify the heat flux that a tree experiences during a fire, given its highly variable nature in space and time. In this study, we used a dose-response approach to elucidate fire impacts by subjecting Pinus monticola var. minima Lemmon and Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco var. glauca (Beissn.) Franco saplings to surface fires of varying intensity doses and measuring short-term post-fire physiological performance in photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll fluorescence. We also evaluated the ability of spectral reflectance indices to quantify change in physiological performance at the individual tree crown and stand scales. Although physiological performance in both P. monticola and P. menziesii declined with increasing fire intensity, P. monticola maintained a greater photosynthetic rate and higher chlorophyll fluorescence at higher doses, for longer after the fire. Pinus monticola also had complete survival at lower fire intensity doses, whereas P. menziesii had some mortality at all doses, implying higher fire resistance for P. monticola at this life stage. Generally, individual-scale spectral indices were more accurate at quantifying physiological performance than those acquired at the stand-scale. The Photochemical Reflectance Index outperformed other indices at quantifying photosynthesis and chlorophyll fluorescence, highlighting its potential use to quantify crown scale physiological performance. Spectral indices that incorporated near-infrared and shortwave infrared reflectance, such as the Normalized Burn Ratio, were accurate at characterizing stand-scale mortality. The results from this study were included in a conifer cross-comparison using physiology and mortality data from other dose-response studies. The comparison highlights the close evolutionary relationship between fire and species within the Pinus genus, assessed to date, given the high survivorship of Pinus species at lower fire intensities versus other conifers.

Bioethics to the rescue! A response to Emmerich.

In our article, Where the ethical action is, we argue that medical and ethical modes of thought are not different in kind but merely different aspects of a clinical situation. In response, Emmerich argues that in so doing, we neglect several important features of healthcare and medical education. Although we applaud the spirit of Emmerich's response, we argue that his critique is an attempt at a general defence of the value of bioethical expertise in clinical practice, rather than a specific critique of our account.