Kinetics of xylem loading, membrane potential maintenance, and sensitivity of K(+) -permeable channels to reactive oxygen species: physiological traits that differentiate salinity tolerance between pea and barley.

Salt sensitive (pea) and salt tolerant (barley) species were used to understand the physiological basis of differential salinity tolerance in crops. Pea plants were much more efficient in restoring otherwise depolarized membrane potential thereby effectively decreasing K(+) efflux through depolarization-activated outward rectifying potassium channels. At the same time, pea root apex was 10-fold more sensitive to physiologically relevant H2 O2 concentration and accumulated larger amounts of H2 O2 under saline conditions. This resulted in a rapid loss of cell viability in the pea root apex. Barley plants rapidly loaded Na(+) into the xylem; this increase was only transient, and xylem and leaf Na(+) concentration remained at a steady level for weeks. On the contrary, pea plants restricted xylem Na(+) loading during the first few days of treatment but failed to prevent shoot Na(+) elevation in the long term. It is concluded that superior salinity tolerance of barley plants compared with pea is conferred by at least three different mechanisms: (1) efficient control of xylem Na(+) loading; (2) efficient control of H2 O2 accumulation and reduced sensitivity of non-selective cation channels to H2 O2 in the root apex; and (3) higher energy saving efficiency, with less ATP spent to maintain membrane potential under saline conditions.

Genotypic difference in salinity tolerance in quinoa is determined by differential control of xylem Na(+) loading and stomatal density.

Quinoa is regarded as a highly salt tolerant halophyte crop, of great potential for cultivation on saline areas around the world. Fourteen quinoa genotypes of different geographical origin, differing in salinity tolerance, were grown under greenhouse conditions. Salinity treatment started on 10 day old seedlings. Six weeks after the treatment commenced, leaf sap Na and K content and osmolality, stomatal density, chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics, and xylem sap Na and K composition were measured. Responses to salinity differed greatly among the varieties. All cultivars had substantially increased K(+) concentrations in the leaf sap, but the most tolerant cultivars had lower xylem Na(+) content at the time of sampling. Most tolerant cultivars had lowest leaf sap osmolality. All varieties reduced stomata density when grown under saline conditions. All varieties clustered into two groups (includers and excluders) depending on their strategy of handling Na(+) under saline conditions. Under control (non-saline) conditions, a strong positive correlation was observed between salinity tolerance and plants ability to accumulate Na(+) in the shoot. Increased leaf sap K(+), controlled Na(+) loading to the xylem, and reduced stomata density are important physiological traits contributing to genotypic differences in salinity tolerance in quinoa, a halophyte species from Chenopodium family.

Ionic and osmotic relations in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) plants grown at various salinity levels.

Ionic and osmotic relations in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) were studied by exposing plants to six salinity levels (0-500 mM NaCl range) for 70 d. Salt stress was administered either by pre-mixing of the calculated amount of NaCl with the potting mix before seeds were planted or by the gradual increase of NaCl levels in the irrigation water. For both methods, the optimal plant growth and biomass was achieved between 100 mM and 200 mM NaCl, suggesting that quinoa possess a very efficient system to adjust osmotically for abrupt increases in NaCl stress. Up to 95% of osmotic adjustment in old leaves and between 80% and 85% of osmotic adjustment in young leaves was achieved by means of accumulation of inorganic ions (Na(+), K(+), and Cl(-)) at these NaCl levels, whilst the contribution of organic osmolytes was very limited. Consistently higher K(+) and lower Na(+) levels were found in young, as compared with old leaves, for all salinity treatments. The shoot sap K(+) progressively increased with increased salinity in old leaves; this is interpreted as evidence for the important role of free K(+) in leaf osmotic adjustment under saline conditions. A 5-fold increase in salinity level (from 100 mM to 500 mM) resulted in only a 50% increase in the sap Na(+) content, suggesting either a very strict control of xylem Na(+) loading or an efficient Na(+) removal from leaves. A very strong correlation between NaCl-induced K(+) and H(+) fluxes was observed in quinoa root, suggesting that a rapid NaCl-induced activation of H(+)-ATPase is needed to restore otherwise depolarized membrane potential and prevent further K(+) leak from the cytosol. Taken together, this work emphasizes the role of inorganic ions for osmotic adjustment in halophytes and calls for more in-depth studies of the mechanisms of vacuolar Na(+) sequestration, control of Na(+) and K(+) xylem loading, and their transport to the shoot.

Effects of magnesium availability on the activity of plasma membrane ion transporters and light-induced responses from broad bean leaf mesophyll.

Considering the physiological significance of Mg homeostasis in plants, surprisingly little is known about the molecular and ionic mechanisms mediating Mg transport across the plasma membrane and the impact of Mg availability on transport processes at the plasmalemma. In this study, a non-invasive ion-selective microelectrode technique (MIFE) was used to characterize the effects of Mg availability on the activity of plasma membrane H+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ transporters in the mesophyll cells of broad bean (Vicia faba L.) plants. Based on the stoichiometry of ion-flux changes and results of pharmacological experiments, we suggest that at least two mechanisms are involved in Mg2+ uptake across the plasma membrane of bean mesophyll cells. One of them is a non-selective cation channel, also permeable to K+ and Ca2+. The other mechanism, operating at concentrations below 30 microM, was speculated to be an H+/Mg+ exchanger. Experiments performed on leaves grown at different levels of Mg availability (from deficient to excessive) showed that Mg availability has a significant impact on the activity of plasma-membrane transporters for Ca2+, K+, and H+. We discuss the physiological significance of Mg-induced changes in leaf electrophysiological responses to light and the ionic mechanisms underlying this process.

Screening broad beans (Vicia faba) for magnesium deficiency. II. Photosynthetic performance and leaf bioelectrical responses.

In search of rapid screening tools for magnesium (Mg) deficiency in crops at early stages of plant ontogeny, we studied the kinetics of leaf photosynthetic responses and changes in electrophysiological characteristics of broad bean leaves as affected by different levels of Mg in the nutrient solution (1-200 ppm). No apparent correlation between plant age, Mg supply level, leaf stomatal conductance (gs) and transpiration rate (E) were found. A significant difference in CO2 assimilation became obvious only at week 8. Chlorophyll fluorescence analysis, however, revealed a significant difference in the maximal quantum efficiency of PSII (Fv / Fm ratio) between Mg-deficient and Mg-sufficient plants as early as 2 weeks after seedling emergence. The most sensitive measurements were of light-induced changes in the leaf surface electric potential, with an almost 2-fold difference in the magnitude of leaf bioelectric response between 10 ppm (deficient) and 50 ppm (optimal) treatments. Preliminary experiments in which net Mg2+ fluxes were measured using the non-invasive ion flux estimation (MIFE) technique showed that the electrical changes on the leaf surface might, to some extent, reflect the movement of Mg2+ across the plasma membrane.

Screening broad beans (Vicia faba) for magnesium deficiency. I. Growth characteristics, visual deficiency symptoms and plant nutritional status.

We used broad beans (Vicia faba L.) as a case study to characterise the development of magnesium (Mg) deficiency symptoms in plants and make a comparative evaluation of the suitability of various physiological characteristics as prospective tools for early diagnosis of Mg deficiency. Growth characteristics were measured at monthly intervals from plants grown in soil solution with a wide range of Mg concentrations (from 1 to 200 ppm). The data were then correlated with plant yield responses, pigment composition and nutrient content in leaves, as well as with visual deficiency symptoms. At the age of 4 weeks, no visual symptoms of deficiency were evident even for plants grown at 1 ppm (severe Mg deficiency). Shoot growth characteristics were very similar for a wide range of treatments, although a pronounced difference in plant yield was observed at the end of the experiment. It appears that neither plant biomass nor leaf area are good indicators for use as diagnostic tools for detection of Mg deficiency in broad beans. Although pigment analysis revealed some difference between treatments, at no age was it possible to distinguish between moderately Mg-deficient (10 or 20 ppm) and sufficient (50-80 ppm) treatments. Leaf elemental analysis for Mg content remained the most sensitive and accurate indicator of Mg deficiency in broad beans. However, it is unsuitable for screening purposes as it is both costly and time-consuming. There is a need for less expensive but effective, rapid screening tools of Mg deficiency in crops at early stages of plant ontogeny.