Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Findings in Children and Adolescents With Chronic Kidney Disease: Preliminary Findings.

This cross-sectional study provides preliminary findings from one of the first functional brain imaging studies in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD). The sample included 21 children with CKD (ages, 14.4 ± 3.0 y) and 11 healthy controls (ages, 14.5 ± 3.4 y). Using functional magnetic resonance imaging during a visual-spatial working memory task, findings showed that the CKD group and healthy controls invoked similar brain regions for encoding and retrieval phases of the task, but significant group differences were noted in the activation patterns for both components of the task. For the encoding phase, the CKD group showed lower activation in the posterior cingulate, anterior cingulate, precuneus, and middle occipital gyrus than the control group, but more activation in the superior temporal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, middle temporal gyrus, and the insula. For the retrieval phase, the CKD group showed underactivation for brain systems involving the posterior cingulate, medial frontal gyrus, occipital lobe, and middle temporal gyrus, and greater activation than the healthy controls in the postcentral gyrus. Few group differences were noted with respect to disease severity. These preliminary findings support evidence showing a neurologic basis to the cognitive difficulties evident in pediatric CKD, and lay the foundation for future studies to explore the neural underpinnings for neurocognitive (dys)function in this population.

Brain abnormalities in children and adolescents with chronic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a risk factor for vascular disease and stroke. The spectrum of brain injury and microstructural white matter abnormalities in children with CKD is largely unknown. METHODS: Cross sectional study at two North American pediatric hospitals. A cohort of 49 children, 29 with CKD, including renal transplant (mean age 14.4 ± 2.9 years; range 9-18), and 20 healthy controls (mean age 13.7 ± 3.1 years; range 9-18) had their conventional brain magnetic resonance images (MRIs) reviewed by one neuroradiologist to determine the prevalence of brain injury. Fractional anisotropy (FA) maps calculated from diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) were generated to compare white matter microstructure in CKD compared to controls, using tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS). RESULTS: Focal and multifocal white matter injury was seen on brain MRI in 6 children with CKD (21%). Relative to controls, CKD subjects showed reduced white matter fractional anisotropy and increased mean diffusivity and radial diffusivity in the anterior limb of the internal capsule, suggestive of abnormal myelination. CONCLUSION: Cerebral white matter abnormalities, including white matter injury, are under-recognized in pediatric CKD patients. Brain imaging studies through progression of CKD are needed to determine the timing of white matter injury and any potentially modifiable risk factors.

Frontal Hypoactivation During a Working Memory Task in Children With 22q11 Deletion Syndrome.

Impairments in executive function, such as working memory, are almost universal in children with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Delineating the neural underpinnings of these functions would enhance understanding of these impairments. In this study, children and adolescents with 22q11 deletion syndrome were compared with healthy control participants in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study of working memory. When the 2-back condition was contrasted with the 1-back and 0-back conditions, the participants with 22q11 deletion syndrome showed lower activation in several brain areas involved in working memory-notably dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and precuneus. This hypoactivation may be due to reduced gray matter volumes or white matter connectivity in the frontal and parietal regions, differences that have previously been documented in children with 22q11 deletion syndrome. Understanding differences in brain function will provide a foundation for future interventions to address the wide range of neurodevelopmental deficits observed in 22q11 deletion syndrome.

Applicability of the nonverbal learning disability paradigm for children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

Chromosome 22qll.2 deletion syndrome (22qllDS) is the most common microdeletion in humans. Nonverbal learning disability (NLD) has been used to describe the strengths and deficits of children with 22q11DS, but the applicability of the label for this population has seldom been systematically evaluated. The goal of the current study was to address how well the NLD diagnosis characterizes children and adolescents with 22q11DS. A total of 74 children and adolescents with 22q11DS were given neurocognitive, socioemotional, and academic assessments to measure aspects of NLD. Of the cohort, 20% met at least 7 of 9 assessed criteria for NLD; 25% showed verbal skills exceeding their nonverbal skills as assessed by an IQ test; and 24% showed the good rote verbal capacity commonly associated with NLD. Hypothesizing that if the entire cohort did not show consistent NLD characteristics, the descriptor might be more accurate for a distinct subgroup, the authors used latent class analysis to divide participants into three subgroups. However, the lines along which the groups broke out were more related to general functioning level than to NLD criteria. All three groups showed a heightened risk for psychiatric illness, highlighting the importance of careful mental health monitoring for all children with 22qllDS.

Feasibility and preliminary efficacy data from a computerized cognitive intervention in children with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

Children with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) are significantly impaired in their academic performance and functionality due to cognitive deficits, especially in attention, memory, and other facets of executive function. Compounding these cognitive deficits is the remarkably high risk of major psychoses, occurring in 25% of adolescents and adults with the disorder. There are currently no evidence-based interventions designed to improve the cognitive deficits in these individuals. We implemented a neuroplasticity-based computerized cognitive remediation program for 12 weeks in 13 adolescents with 22q11DS, assessed feasibility, and measured changes in cognition before and after the intervention compared to a control group of 10 age- and gender-matched children with 22q11DS. Our results indicated that despite their cognitive impairments, this intervention is feasible in children with 22q11DS, with high rates of adherence and satisfaction. Our preliminary analyses indicate that gains in cognition occur with the intervention. Further study in a larger randomized controlled trial would enable assessment of efficacy of this novel intervention.