Optimization of Host Cell-Compatible, Antimicrobial Peptides Effective against Biofilms and Clinical Isolates of Drug-Resistant Bacteria.

Here, we describe the continued synthetic molecular evolution of a lineage of host-compatible antimicrobial peptides (AMP) intended for the treatment of wounds infected with drug-resistant, biofilm-forming bacteria. The peptides tested are variants of an evolved AMP called d-amino acid CONsensus with Glycine Absent (d-CONGA), which has excellent antimicrobial activities in vitro and in vivo. In this newest generation of rational d-CONGA variants, we tested multiple sequence-structure-function hypotheses that had not been tested in previous generations. Many of the peptide variants have lower antibacterial activity against Gram-positive or Gram-negative pathogens, especially variants that have altered hydrophobicity, secondary structure potential, or spatial distribution of charged and hydrophobic residues. Thus, d-CONGA is generally well tuned for antimicrobial activity. However, we identified a variant, d-CONGA-Q7, with a polar glutamine inserted into the middle of the sequence, that has higher activity against both planktonic and biofilm-forming bacteria as well as lower cytotoxicity against human fibroblasts. Against clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae, innate resistance to d-CONGA was surprisingly common despite a lack of inducible resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa reported previously. Yet, these same isolates were susceptible to d-CONGA-Q7. d-CONGA-Q7 is much less vulnerable to AMP resistance in Gram-negative bacteria than its predecessor. Consistent with the spirit of synthetic molecular evolution, d-CONGA-Q7 achieved a critical gain-of-function and has a significantly better activity profile.

Vaccination to Prevent Pseudomonas aeruginosa Bloodstream Infections.

The bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Pa) is ubiquitous in the environment and causes opportunistic infections in humans. Pa is increasingly becoming one of the most difficult to treat microorganisms due to its intrinsic and acquired resistance to multiple antibiotics. The World Health Organization estimates that at least 700,000 people die each year from drug resistant microbial infections and have listed Pa as one of three bacterial species for which there is the most critical need for the development of novel therapeutics. Pa is a common cause of bloodstream infections (BSI) and bacterial sepsis. With nearly 49 million sepsis cases and 11 million deaths worldwide, an effective vaccine against Pa could prevent the morbidity and mortality resulting from Pa BSI and lessen our dependence on antibiotics. We reviewed the current landscape of Pa vaccines in pre-clinical and clinical stages over the last two decades. It is readily apparent that Pa vaccine development efforts have been largely directed at the prevention of pulmonary infections, likely due to Pa's devastating impact on individuals with cystic fibrosis. However, the increase in nosocomial infections, BSI-related sepsis, and the emergence of widespread antibiotic resistance have converged as a major threat to global public health. In this perspective, we draw attention to potential Pa vaccine candidates and encourage a renewed effort for prophylactic vaccine development to prevent drug-resistant Pa BSI.

Synthetic DNA Vaccines Adjuvanted with pIL-33 Drive Liver-Localized T Cells and Provide Protection from Plasmodium Challenge in a Mouse Model.

The need for a malaria vaccine is indisputable. A single vaccine for Plasmodium pre-erythrocytic stages targeting the major sporozoite antigen circumsporozoite protein (CSP) has had partial success. Additionally, CD8+ T cells targeting liver-stage (LS) antigens induced by live attenuated sporozoite vaccines were associated with protection in human challenge experiments. To further evaluate protection mediated by LS antigens, we focused on exported pre-erythrocytic proteins (exported protein 1 (EXP1), profilin (PFN), exported protein 2 (EXP2), inhibitor of cysteine proteases (ICP), transmembrane protein 21 (TMP21), and upregulated in infective sporozoites-3 (UIS3)) expressed in all Plasmodium species and designed optimized, synthetic DNA (synDNA) immunogens. SynDNA antigen cocktails were tested with and without the molecular adjuvant plasmid IL-33. Immunized animals developed robust T cell responses including induction of antigen-specific liver-localized CD8+ T cells, which were enhanced by the co-delivery of plasmid IL-33. In total, 100% of mice in adjuvanted groups and 71%-88% in non-adjuvanted groups were protected from blood-stage disease following Plasmodium yoelii sporozoite challenge. This study supports the potential of synDNA LS antigens as vaccine components for malaria parasite infection.

Phenotypic Analysis of Rodent Malaria Parasite Asexual and Sexual Blood Stages and Mosquito Stages.

Recent advances in genetics and systems biology technologies have promoted our understanding of the biology of malaria parasites on the molecular level. However, effective malaria parasite targets for vaccine and chemotherapy development are still limited. This is largely due to the unavailability of relevant and practical in vivo infection models for human Plasmodium species, most notably for P. falciparum and P. vivax. Therefore, rodent malaria species have been extensively used as practical alternative in vivo models for malaria vaccine, drug targeting, immune response, and functional characterization studies of conserved Plasmodiumspp. genes. Indeed, rodent malaria models have proven to be invaluable, especially for exploring mosquito transmission and liver stage biology, and were indispensable for immunological studies. However, there are discrepancies in the methods used to evaluate the phenotypes of transgenic and wild-type asexual and sexual blood-stage parasites. Examples of these discrepancies are the choice of an intravenous vs. intraperitoneal infection of rodents with blood-stage parasites and the evaluation of male gamete exflagellation. Herein, we detail standardized experimental methods to evaluate the phenotypes of asexual and sexual blood stages in transgenic parasites expressing reporter-gene or wild-type rodent malaria parasite species. We also detail the methods to evaluate the phenotypes of malaria parasite mosquito stages (gametes, ookinetes, oocysts, and sporozoites) inside Anopheles mosquito vectors. These methods are detailed and simplified here for the lethal and non-lethal strains of P. berghei and P. yoelii but can also be applied with some adjustments to P. chabaudi and P. vinckei rodent malaria species.

Functional Conservation of P48/45 Proteins in the Transmission Stages of Plasmodium vivax (Human Malaria Parasite) and P. berghei (Murine Malaria Parasite).

Sexual-stage proteins have a distinct function in the mosquito vector during transmission and also represent targets for the development of malaria transmission-blocking vaccine. P48/45, a leading vaccine candidate, is critical for male gamete fertility and shows >50% similarity across various species of Plasmodium We evaluated functional conservation of P48/45 in Plasmodium vivax and P. berghei with the motivation to establish transgenic P. berghei strains expressing P. vivax P48/45 (Pvs48/45) in an in vivo assay to evaluate the transmission-blocking activity of antibodies elicited by Pvs48/45. Homologous recombination was employed to target P. bergheis48/45 (pbs48/45) for knockout (KO) or for its replacement by two different forms of P. vivaxs48/45 (pvs48/45) (the full-length gene and a chimeric gene consisting of pbs48/45 5' signal and 3' anchor sequences flanking pvs48/45). Expression of Pvs48/45 in transgenic parasites and lack of expression of any P48/45 in KO parasites were confirmed by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) and Western blotting. Both transgenic and knockout parasites revealed asexual growth kinetics in mice comparable to that seen with wild-type parasites. When employed in mosquito infection experiments, both transgenic parasite strains remained transmission competent and developed into infectious sporozoites, whereas the knockout parasites were incapable of establishing mosquito-stage infection. These results indicate the functional conservation of P48/45 protein during transmission, and the transgenic parasites generated in this study represent a valuable tool to evaluate the protective efficacy of transmission-blocking antibodies elicited by Pvs48/45-based vaccines using an in vivo mouse animal assay instead of ex vivo membrane feeding assays (MFA) relying on access to P. vivax gametocytes from infected patients.IMPORTANCE Malaria transmission depends upon successful sexual differentiation and maturation of parasites in the vertebrate host and further development in the mosquito midgut. Stage-specific proteins in the sexual stages have been shown to play a critical role in development and successful transmission through the anopheline mosquito vector. Studies presented in the current manuscript evaluated functional conservation of one such protein, P48/45, in two diverse species (P. berghei and P. vivax). Replacement of endogenous pbs48/45 in P. berghei with pvs48/45 (P. vivax homologue) did not affect the viability of the parasites, and the transgenic parasites expressing Pvs48/45 remained transmission competent. These studies establish not only the functional conservation of P48/45 in P. berghei and P. vivax but also offer an opportunity to develop an in vivo test model for Pvs48/45-based P. vivax transmission-blocking vaccines, currently under development.

Genetic Characterization of Coenzyme A Biosynthesis Reveals Essential Distinctive Functions during Malaria Parasite Development in Blood and Mosquito.

Coenzyme A (CoA) is an essential universal cofactor for all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In nearly all non-photosynthetic cells, CoA biosynthesis depends on the uptake and phosphorylation of vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid or pantothenate). Recently, putative pantothenate transporter (PAT) and pantothenate kinases (PanKs) were functionally characterized in P. yoelii. PAT and PanKs were shown to be dispensable for blood stage development, but they were essential for mosquito stages development. Yet, little is known about the cellular functions of the other enzymes of the CoA biosynthesis pathway in malaria parasite life cycle stages. All enzymes of this pathway were targeted for deletion or deletion/complementation analyses by knockout/knock-in plasmid constructs to reveal their essential roles in P. yoelii life cycle stages. The intermediate enzymes PPCS (Phosphopantothenylcysteine Synthase), PPCDC (Phosphopantothenylcysteine Decarboxylase) were shown to be dispensable for asexual and sexual blood stage development, but they were essential for oocyst development and the production of sporozoites. However, the last two enzymes of this pathway, PPAT (Phosphopantetheine Adenylyltransferase) and DPCK (Dephospho-CoA Kinase), were essential for blood stage development. These results indicate alternative first substrate requirement for the malaria parasite, other than the canonical pantothenate, for the synthesis of CoA in the blood but not inside the mosquito midgut. Collectively, our data shows that CoA de novo biosynthesis is essential for both blood and mosquito stages, and thus validates the enzymes of this pathway as potential antimalarial targets.

Genetic Characterization of Plasmodium Putative Pantothenate Kinase Genes Reveals Their Essential Role in Malaria Parasite Transmission to the Mosquito.

The metabolic machinery for the biosynthesis of Coenzyme A (CoA) from exogenous pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) has long been considered as an excellent target for the development of selective antimicrobials. Earlier studies in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum have shown that pantothenate analogs interfere with pantothenate phosphorylation and block asexual blood stage development. Although two eukaryotic-type putative pantothenate kinase genes (PanK1 and PanK2) have been identified in all malaria parasite species, their role in the development of Plasmodium life cycle stages remains unknown. Here we report on the genetic characterization of PanK1 and PanK2 in P. yoelii. We show that P. yoelii parasites lacking either PanK1 or PanK2 undergo normal asexual stages development and sexual stages differentiation, however they are severely deficient in ookinete, oocyst and sporozoite formation inside the mosquito vector. Quantitative transcriptional analyses in wild-type and knockout parasites demonstrate an important role for these genes in the regulation of expression of other CoA biosynthesis genes. Together, our data provide the first genetic evidence for the importance of the early steps of pantothenate utilization in the regulation of CoA biosynthesis and malaria parasite transmission to Anopheles mosquitoes.

Plasmodium AdoMetDC/ODC bifunctional enzyme is essential for male sexual stage development and mosquito transmission.

Polyamines are positively-charged organic molecules that are important for cellular growth and division. Polyamines and their synthesizing enzymes are particularly abundant in rapidly proliferating eukaryotic cells such as parasitic protozoa and cancer cells. Polyamine biosynthesis inhibitors, such as Elfornithine, are now being considered for cancer prevention and have been used effectively against Trypanosoma brucei Inhibitors of polyamine biosynthesis have caused growth arrest of Plasmodium falciparum blood stages in vitro, but in P. berghei only partial inhibition has been observed. While polyamine biosynthesis enzymes are characterized and conserved in Plasmodium spp., little is known on the biological roles of these enzymes inside malaria parasite hosts. The bifunctional polyamine biosynthesis enzyme S-adenosyl methionine decarboxylase/ornithine decarboxylase (AdoMetDC/ODC) was targeted for deletion in P. yoelii Deletion of AdoMetDC/ODC significantly reduced blood stage parasitemia but Anopheles transmission was completely blocked. We showed that male gametocytogenesis and male gamete exflagellation were abolished and consequently no ookinetes or oocyst sporozoites could be generated from adometdc/odc(-) parasites. Supplementation of putrescine and spermidine did not rescue the defective phenotypes of male gametocytes and gametes of the knockout parasites. These results highlight the crucial role of polyamine homeostasis in the development and functions of Plasmodium erythrocytic stages in the blood and in the mosquito vector and validate polyamine biosynthesis pathway enzymes as drug targeting candidates for malaria parasite transmission blocking.

Development of the experimental procedure to examine the response of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composites subjected to a high-intensity pulsed electric field and low-velocity impact.

A new fully automated experimental setup has been developed to study the response of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites subjected to a high-intensity pulsed electric field and low-velocity impact. The experimental setup allows for real-time measurements of the pulsed electric current, voltage, impact load, and displacements on the CFRP composite specimens. The setup includes a new custom-built current pulse generator that utilizes a bank of capacitor modules capable of producing a 20 ms current pulse with an amplitude of up to 2500 A. The setup enabled application of the pulsed current and impact load and successfully achieved coordination between the peak of the current pulse and the peak of the impact load. A series of electrical, impact, and coordinated electrical-impact characterization tests were performed on 32-ply IM7/977-3 unidirectional CFRP composites to assess their ability to withstand application of a pulsed electric current and determine the effects of the pulsed current on the impact response. Experimental results revealed that the electrical resistance of CFRP composites decreased with an increase in the electric current magnitude. It was also found that the electrified CFRP specimens withstood higher average impact loads compared to the non-electrified specimens.

Plasmodium yoelii vitamin B5 pantothenate transporter candidate is essential for parasite transmission to the mosquito.

In nearly all non-photosynthetic cells, pantothenate (vitamin B5) transport and utilization are prerequisites for the synthesis of the universal essential cofactor Coenzyme A (CoA). Early studies showed that human malaria parasites rely on the uptake of pantothenate across the parasite plasma membrane for survival within erythrocytes. Recently, a P. falciparum candidate pantothenate transporter (PAT) was characterized by functional complementation in yeast. These studies revealed that PfPAT mediated survival of yeast cells in low pantothenate concentrations and restored sensitivity of yeast cells lacking pantothenate uptake to fenpropimorph. In addition, PfPAT was refractory to deletion in P. falciparum in vitro, but nothing is known about the in vivo functions of PAT in Plasmodium life cycle stages. Herein, we used gene-targeting techniques to delete PAT in Plasmodium yoelii. Parasites lacking PAT displayed normal asexual and sexual blood stage development compared to wild-type (WT) and WT-like p230p(-) parasites. However, progression from the ookinete to the oocyst stage and sporozoite formation were completely abolished in pat(-) parasites. These studies provide the first evidence for an essential role of a candidate pantothenate transport in malaria transmission to Anopheles mosquitoes. This will set the stage for the development of PAT inhibitors against multiple parasite life cycle stages.