Exploring Empathy and Callous-Unemotional Traits as Predictors of Animal Abuse Perpetrated by Children Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence.

We explored the relation between empathy, callous-unemotional (CU) traits, and animal abuse in a sample of 290 seven- to twelve-year-old children whose mothers were exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV). The sample comprises mostly Latino and White participants, and 55% of the children's mothers were born outside the United States (primarily Mexico). To our knowledge, among studies examining child-perpetrated animal abuse, this study is the first to examine empathy levels and one of only a few to examine CU traits. When comparing Griffith Empathy Measure (empathy) and Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits (callous-unemotional [CU] traits) scores with those from studies of White schoolchildren, our sample scored lower on affective empathy, higher on cognitive empathy, and lower for overall CU scores as well as Callous and Unemotional subscales. Of 290 children, 47 (16.2%) harmed an animal at least once according to either mother or child report. There were no significant sex or age differences between Abuse and No Abuse groups. The Abuse group scored significantly higher on affective empathy, CU, and Callousness/Unemotional subscales, and significantly lower on cognitive empathy. However, in regression analyses that controlled for income, only lower cognitive empathy and higher CU significantly predicted having abused an animal. In summary, low cognitive empathy (but not affective empathy) and CU traits may serve as reliable predictors of child animal abuse. However, replication of these results is necessary. A larger sample with a high percentage of Latino children whose mothers were exposed to IPV, along with a non-exposed comparison group, would be ideal.

Intimate Partner Violence and Animal Abuse in an Immigrant-Rich Sample of Mother-Child Dyads Recruited From Domestic Violence Programs.

We examined rates of animal abuse in pet-owning families experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV). We also examined whether higher levels of IPV (as measured by subscales from the Conflict Tactics Scales) predicted increased risk for partner-perpetrated animal abuse. Our sample included 291 mother-child dyads, where the mothers sought services from domestic violence agencies. Nearly half the sample is comprised of Mexican immigrants. Mothers reported that 11.7% of partners threatened to harm a pet and 26.1% actually harmed a pet, the latter of which represents a lower rate than in similar studies. When examining animal abuse by "Hispanic status," follow-up analyses revealed significant omnibus differences between groups, in that non-Hispanic U.S.-born partners (mostly White) displayed higher rates of harming pets (41%) than either U.S.-born or Mexican-born Hispanic groups (27% and 12.5%, respectively). Differences in rates for only threatening (but not harming) pets were not significant, possibly due to a small number of partners ( n = 32) in this group. When examining whether partners' IPV predicted only threatening to harm pets, no IPV subscale variables (Physical Assault, Psychological Aggression, Injury, or Sexual Coercion) were significant after controlling for income, education, and Hispanic status. When examining actual harm to pets, more Psychological Aggression and less Physical Assault significantly predicted slightly higher risk of harm. However, Mexican-born partners had nearly 4 times lower risk of harming a pet. Overall, these results suggest that Hispanic men who are perpetrators of IPV are less likely to harm pets than non-Hispanic perpetrators of IPV, particularly if Mexican-born. Considering that the United States has a significant proportion of Mexican immigrants, it may be worthwhile to explore the topics of IPV and animal abuse within this group.

Prevalence and predictors of injection drug use and risky sexual behaviors among adolescents in substance treatment.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The longitudinal risk for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection following adolescent substance treatment is not known. Therefore, it is not known if adolescent substance treatment should include HIV prevention interventions. To address this important research gap, this study evaluates the longitudinal prevalence and predictors of injection drug use (IDU) and sex risk behaviors among adolescents in substance treatment. METHODS: Participants were 260 adolescents (13-18 years) in substance treatment and 201 community control adolescents (11-19 years). Participants were assessed at baseline and follow-up (mean time between assessments = 6.9 years for the clinical sample and 5.6 years for the community control sample). Outcomes included self-report lifetime history of IDU, number of lifetime sex partners and frequency of unprotected sexual intercourse. RESULTS: At baseline, 7.5% of the clinical sample, compared to 1.0% of the community control sample had a lifetime history of IDU (χ12=10.53, p = .001). At follow-up, 17.4% of the clinical sample compared to 0% of the community control sample had a lifetime history of IDU (χ12=26.61, p = .0005). The number of baseline substance use disorders and onset age of marijuana use significantly predicted the presence of lifetime IDU at follow-up, after adjusting for baseline age, race, and sex. The clinical sample reported more lifetime sex partners and more frequent unprotected sex than the community control sample at baseline and follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Many adolescents in substance treatment develop IDU and report persistent risky sex. Effective risk reduction interventions for adolescents in substance treatment are needed that address both IDU and risky sex.

Conduct disorder and initiation of substance use: a prospective longitudinal study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the influence of conduct disorder (CD) on substance use initiation. METHOD: Community adolescents without CD (n = 1,165, mean baseline age = 14.6 years), with CD (n = 194, mean baseline age = 15.3 years), and youth with CD recruited from treatment (n = 268, mean baseline age = 15.7 years) were prospectively followed and re-interviewed during young adulthood (mean ages at follow-up respectively: 20, 20.8, and 24). Young adult retrospective reports of age of substance initiation for 10 substance classes were analyzed using Cox regression analyses. Hazard ratios of initiation for the CD cohorts (community without CD as the reference) at ages 15, 18, and 21 were calculated, adjusting for baseline age, gender, and race/ethnicity. RESULTS: Among community subjects, CD was associated with elevated adjusted hazards for initiation of all substances, with comparatively greater hazard ratios of initiating illicit substances at age 15 years. By age 18, the adjusted hazard ratios remained significant except for alcohol. At age 21, the adjusted hazard ratios were significant only for cocaine, amphetamines, inhalants, and club drugs. A substantial portion of community subjects without CD never initiated illicit substance use. Clinical youth with CD demonstrated similar patterns, with comparatively larger adjusted hazard ratios. CONCLUSIONS: CD confers increased risk for substance use initiation across all substance classes at age 15 years, with greater relative risk for illicit substances compared to licit substances. This effect continues until age 18 years, with the weakest effect for alcohol. It further diminishes for other substances by age 21, However, the likelihood of initiating cocaine, amphetamines, inhalants and club drug use among those who have not initiated yet continues to be highly elevated by age 21.

Using Cloninger's temperament scales to predict substance-related behaviors in adolescents: a prospective longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: We tested one of Cloninger's temperament theories - that high novelty seeking (NS), along with low harm avoidance (HA), reward dependence (RD), and persistence (PE), predicts early-onset substance problems. METHODS: In a community-based sample of 777 adolescents examined at two time points (mean age 13 and 18, respectively), we examined whether Cloninger's four temperament dimensions at wave 1 predicted five substance-related outcomes at wave 2: age of initiation for cigarettes, alcohol, and illicit drugs, number of substance classes tried, and total number of DSM-IV substance use disorder (SUD) symptoms. RESULTS: Cloninger's predicted temperament pattern did significantly predict the number of SUD symptoms at wave 2. For initiation of cigarettes/illicit drugs and number of substance classes tried, HA/NS/PE fit the pattern, but RD did not. For onset of alcohol, only NS and PE fit Cloninger's prediction. Results for NS and PE were most consistent. CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: Overall, this study provides evidence that Cloninger's theory may hold true for predicting problem use more than for predicting "use" or experimentation. In addition, youth with high novelty seeking and low persistence may find substances especially reinforcing, and identifying these youth and intervening before initiation has occurred may reduce the risk of future substance-related problems.

The association between cannabinoid receptor 1 gene (CNR1) and cannabis dependence symptoms in adolescents and young adults.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the genetic association between variation in the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) gene and cannabis dependence symptoms. METHOD: Adolescent and young adult subjects were recruited from three settings: a treatment program for youth with substance use disorders, the criminal justice system, and the community. A case-control sample consisted of 224 cases who endorsed at least one dependence symptom and 108 controls who tried cannabis but endorsed no symptoms. A family-based sample of 219 families was also analyzed. RESULTS: Case-control analysis identified a nominal association between SNP rs1049353 and having one or more cannabis dependence symptoms (p=.029), but the association did not hold up in a combined sample. Family-based analysis found a trend for the same SNP (p=.07). We did not replicate a previous report that SNP rs806380 was associated with the development of cannabis dependence. CONCLUSION: These results provide inconclusive evidence of association between rs1049353/rs806380 and the development of cannabis dependence, and underscore the importance of replicating results of genetic association studies. Additional family-based studies are needed to clarify the role of the CNR1 gene, and its various SNPs, in the development of cannabis use disorders.

An item response theory analysis of DSM-IV conduct disorder.

OBJECTIVE: We examined DSM-IV conduct disorder (CD) symptom criteria in a community sample of male and female adolescents to evaluate the extent to which DSM-IV criteria characterize the range of severity of adolescent antisocial behavior within and across sex. METHOD: Interviews were conducted with 3,208 adolescents between the ages of 11 and 18 years using the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children. Item response theory analyses were performed to obtain severity and discrimination parameters for each of the lifetime DSM-IV CD symptom criteria. In addition, item response theory-based differential item functioning analyses were conducted to examine the extent to which the symptom criteria function similarly across sex. RESULTS: The DSM-IV CD symptom criteria are useful and meaningful indicators of severe adolescent antisocial behavior. A single item ("Steal without Confrontation") was a poor indicator of severe antisocial behavior. The CD symptom criteria function similarly across sex; however, three items had significantly different severity parameters. CONCLUSIONS: The DSM-IV CD criteria are informative as categorical and continuous measures of severe adolescent antisocial behavior; however, some CD criteria display sex bias.

Toward DSM-V: an item response theory analysis of the diagnostic process for DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence in adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: Item response theory analyses were used to examine alcohol abuse and dependence symptoms and diagnoses in adolescents. Previous research suggests that the DSM-IV alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms in adolescents may be characterized by a single dimension. The present study extends prior research with a larger and more comprehensive sample and an examination of an alternative diagnostic algorithm for AUDs. METHOD: Approximately 5,587 adolescents between the ages of 12 and 18 years from adjudicated, clinical, and community samples were administered structured clinical interviews. Analyses were conducted to examine the severity of alcohol abuse and dependence symptoms and the severity of alcohol use problems (AUDs) within the diagnostic categories created by the DSM-IV. RESULTS: Although the DSM-IV diagnostic categories differ in severity of AUDs, there is substantial overlap and inconsistency in AUD severity of persons across these categories. Item Response Theory-based AUD severity estimates suggest that many persons diagnosed with abuse have AUD severity greater than persons with dependence. Similarly, many persons who endorse some symptoms but do not qualify for a diagnosis (i.e., diagnostic orphans) have more severe AUDs than persons with an abuse diagnosis. Additionally, two dependence items, "tolerance" and "larger/longer," show differences in severity between samples. CONCLUSIONS: The distinction between DSM-IV abuse and dependence based on severity can be improved using an alternative diagnostic algorithm that considers all of the alcohol abuse and dependence symptoms conjointly.

Item response theory analysis of DSM-IV cannabis abuse and dependence criteria in adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To examine three aspects of adolescent cannabis problems: do DSM-IV cannabis abuse and dependence criteria represent two different levels of severity of substance involvement, to what degree do each of the 11 abuse and dependence criteria assess adolescent cannabis problems, and do the DSM-IV items function similarly across different adolescent populations? METHOD: We examined 5,587 adolescents ages 11 to 19, including 615 youths in treatment for substance use disorders, 179 adjudicated youths, and 4,793 youths from the community. All of the subjects were assessed with a structured diagnostic interview. Item response theory was used to analyze symptom endorsement patterns. RESULTS: Abuse and dependence criteria were not found to represent different levels of severity of problem cannabis use in any of the samples. Among the 11 abuse and dependence criteria, problems cutting down and legal problems were the least informative for distinguishing problem users. Two dependence criteria and three of the four abuse criteria indicated different severities of cannabis problems across samples. CONCLUSIONS: We found little evidence to support the idea that abuse and dependence are separate constructs for adolescent cannabis problems. Furthermore, certain abuse criteria may indicate severe substance problems, whereas specific dependence items may indicate less severe problems. The abuse items in particular need further study. These results have implications for the refinement of the current substance use disorder criteria for DSM-V.

Test of alternative hypotheses explaining the comorbidity between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder.

There is significant comorbidity between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorder (CD). The conclusions of studies that examined the causes of comorbidity between ADHD and CD conflict, with some researchers finding support for the three independent disorders model and others finding support for the correlated risk factors model. We tested these models and eleven alternative hypotheses using the same analytical approach. The participants were 110 monozygotic twin pairs and 181 dizygotic twin pairs recruited from the Colorado Learning Disabilities Research Center Twin Study. The three independent disorders model did not fit the data, whereas the correlated risk factors model fit the data well. Several other comorbidity models fit the data as well as or better than the correlated risk factors model. The results suggest that correlated risk factors are a better explanation for the comorbidity between ADHD and CD than a third, independent ADHD+CD subtype.

Modeling rater disagreement for ADHD: are parents or teachers biased?

The present study is the first to utilize twin modeling to examine whether parent-teacher disagreement for ADHD ratings is due to parent or teacher bias, or due to raters observing different but valid ADHD behaviors. A joint analysis was conducted with 106 twin pairs, including twins selected for ADHD and control twin pairs. Total ADHD scores were analyzed using multiple rater models that estimate genetic and environmental contributions common to both raters and unique to each rater. Results suggest that 1) disagreement in ADHD ratings is strongly due to parents and teachers observing different ADHD behaviors, some of which is valid and some of which is due to bias, and 2) parents may be more biased than teachers in their ADHD ratings.

A genome-wide scan for loci influencing adolescent cannabis dependence symptoms: evidence for linkage on chromosomes 3 and 9.

OBJECTIVE: Cannabis is the most frequently abused illicit substance among adolescents and young adults. Genetic risk factors account for part of the variation in the development of cannabis dependence symptoms; however, no linkage studies have been performed for cannabis dependence symptoms. This study aimed to identify such loci. METHOD: Three hundred and twenty-four sibling pairs from 192 families were assessed for cannabis dependence symptoms. Probands (13-19 years of age) were recruited from consecutive admissions to substance abuse treatment facilities. The siblings of the probands ranged in age from 12 to 25 years. A community-based sample of 4843 adolescents and young adults was utilized to define an age- and sex-corrected index of cannabis dependence vulnerability. DSM-IV cannabis dependence symptoms were assessed in youth and their family members with the Composite International Diagnostic Instrument-Substance Abuse Module. Siblings and parents were genotyped for 374 microsatellite markers distributed across the 22 autosomes (average inter-marker distance=9.2cM). Cannabis dependence symptoms were analyzed using Merlin-regress, a regression-based method that is robust to sample selection. RESULTS: Evidence for suggestive linkage was found on chromosome 3q21 near marker D3S1267 (LOD=2.61), and on chromosome 9q34 near marker D9S1826 (LOD=2.57). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first reported linkage study of cannabis dependence symptoms. Other reports of linkage regions for illicit substance dependence have been reported near 3q21, suggesting that this region may contain a quantitative trait loci influencing cannabis dependence and other substance use disorders.

Test of association between TaqIA A1 allele and alcohol use disorder phenotypes in a sample of adolescent patients with serious substance and behavioral problems.

UNLABELLED: Several studies have demonstrated a significant association between the A1 allele of the TaqIA polymorphism and various phenotypes of alcoholism, others have not, and two studies have shown the reversed association, where the A2 allele was associated with higher levels of alcohol consumption. We sought to test for an association between early onset (in childhood or adolescence) alcohol use disorders and the DRD2 TaqIA polymorphism and to resolve some of the hypothesized explanations for previous negative results, utilizing a larger sample than many previous studies. METHODS: We selected individuals with a lifetime alcohol abuse or dependence (n=239) diagnosis from a clinically ascertained sample of youth (ages 13-19) with serious conduct and substance problems (about 90% also met criteria for conduct disorder and a cannabis use disorder) and compared them with individuals without a lifetime alcohol use disorder diagnosis ascertained from (1) community adolescent controls (n=151), (2) siblings of patients (n=87) and (3) other adolescent patients (n=92). Cases were compared with each control group, separately, by genotype using the chi(2)-test. Using 78 adolescent patients with an alcohol use disorder where genotypic information was available for both parents, we conducted the transmission disequilibrium test (TDT). RESULTS: Case-control results were non-significant using the entire community control sample (chi(2)(2)=1.92; p=0.38) and when restricting the sample to Caucasians (chi(2)(2)=3.81; p=0.15) or Hispanics (chi(2)(2)=1.70; p=0.43). Case-control results using the other comparison groups and TDT results were also non-significant. DISCUSSION: We did not find support for an association between the TaqIA polymorphism and early onset alcohol use disorders.

The family transmission of adolescent alcohol abuse and dependence.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the familial transmission of alcohol abuse and dependence to adolescents. METHOD: Male adolescents recruited from a treatment program for substance problems, matched controls, and all available biological parents and siblings were assessed with a structured psychiatric interview assessing Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, based diagnoses of alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. A total of 2,612 individuals from 911 families were interviewed. Structural equation modeling estimated tetrachoric correlations among family members, the proportion of variance in abuse and dependence attributable to parent-offspring transmission, and the effects of assortative mating and horizontal transmission among siblings. RESULTS: Tetrachoric correlations among siblings and parent-offspring ranged from .19 to .34 for abuse and dependence. Mother-father correlations were .14 and .37 for abuse and dependence, respectively. Modeling of familial transmission showed that 33% of the variance in abuse and 56% of the variance in dependence was accounted for by factors transmitted from parents. The effects of assortative mating could not be dropped from the abuse model without significant loss of model fit but could be dropped from the dependence model. Horizontal transmission among siblings could be dropped from both models without significant loss of fit. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that aggregation of alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence in families of male probands is significantly influenced by parental transmission of risk but is not reliably influenced by horizontal sibling effects such as sibling interactions or cohort effects. Spousal resemblance was found to be an important source of familial aggregation for alcohol abuse but not alcohol dependence.

The relation between sluggish cognitive tempo and DSM-IV ADHD.

To test the relation between sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) and DSM-IV ADHD symptoms, parent and teacher ratings of the 18 DSM-IV ADHD items and five potential SCT items were obtained in a community sample of 8-18 year-old twins that was overselected for ADHD and learning disabilities (n = 296). Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that a three-factor model provided the best fit to the data for both parent and teacher ratings. DSM-IV inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms loaded on two factors consistent with the DSM-IV model, and five SCT symptoms loaded primarily on a third factor. The SCT and inattention factors were highly correlated, whereas SCT and hyperactivity-impulsivity were weakly related. Both raters indicated that children meeting symptom criteria for the combined and inattentive subtypes exhibited significantly more SCT symptoms than those meeting symptom criteria for hyperactive-impulsive type and the comparison group without ADHD. Children meeting symptom criteria for the inattentive type exhibited significantly more SCT symptoms than those meeting criteria for the combined type, based on teacher ratings. These results suggest that SCT is an internally consistent construct that is significantly associated with DSM-IV inattention.