Mapping co-benefits for carbon storage and biodiversity to inform conservation policy and action.

Integrated high-resolution maps of carbon stocks and biodiversity that identify areas of potential co-benefits for climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation can help facilitate the implementation of global climate and biodiversity commitments at local levels. However, the multi-dimensional nature of biodiversity presents a major challenge for understanding, mapping and communicating where and how biodiversity benefits coincide with climate benefits. A new integrated approach to biodiversity is therefore needed. Here, we (a) present a new high-resolution map of global above- and below-ground carbon stored in biomass and soil, (b) quantify biodiversity values using two complementary indices (BIp and BIr) representing proactive and reactive approaches to conservation, and (c) examine patterns of carbon-biodiversity overlap by identifying 'hotspots' (20% highest values for both aspects). Our indices integrate local diversity and ecosystem intactness, as well as regional ecosystem intactness across the broader area supporting a similar natural assemblage of species to the location of interest. The western Amazon Basin, Central Africa and Southeast Asia capture the last strongholds of highest local biodiversity and ecosystem intactness worldwide, while the last refuges for unique biological communities whose habitats have been greatly reduced are mostly found in the tropical Andes and central Sundaland. There is 38 and 5% overlap in carbon and biodiversity hotspots, for proactive and reactive conservation, respectively. Alarmingly, only around 12 and 21% of these proactive and reactive hotspot areas, respectively, are formally protected. This highlights that a coupled approach is urgently needed to help achieve both climate and biodiversity global targets. This would involve (1) restoring and conserving unprotected, degraded ecosystems, particularly in the Neotropics and Indomalaya, and (2) retaining the remaining strongholds of intactness. This article is part of the theme issue 'Climate change and ecosystems: threats, opportunities and solutions'.

Resistance/reactance level.

Psychotherapists from all professions and perspectives periodically struggle to effectively manage a patient's resistance to change. This article provides definitions and examples of patient-treatment matching applied to patient resistance or reactance. We report the results from an original meta-analysis of 12 select studies (N = 1,102) on matching therapist directiveness to patient reactance. Our findings support the hypothesis that patients exhibiting low levels of trait-like resistance respond better to directive types of treatment, while patients with high levels of resistance respond best to nondirective treatments (d = .82). Limitations of the research reviewed are noted, and practice recommendations are advanced.

Coping style.

The fit of patient coping style and psychotherapy focus has been suggested as improving treatment outcome. This article reviews the definitions, measures, and previous research surrounding this hypothesis. An original meta-analysis of 12 carefully selected studies (N = 1,291 patients) resulted in a weighted, mean effect size (d) of .55 in favor of a fit between externalizing patients and symptom-focused treatment or, alternatively, internalizing patients and insight-focused treatment. This medium-size effect indicates that nondiagnostic patient factors, like coping style, are important considerations in the selection of effective therapies. Clinical examples and clinical recommendations are provided.

Rapeseed cytoplasm gives advantage in wild relatives and complicates genetically modified crop biocontainment.

Biocontainment methods for genetically modified crops closest to commercial reality (chloroplast transformation, male sterility) would be compromised (in absolute terms) by seed-mediated gene flow leading to chloroplast capture. Even in these circumstances, however, it can be argued that biocontainment still represses transgene movement, with the efficacy depending on the relative frequency of seed- and pollen-mediated gene flow. In this study, we screened for crop-specific chloroplast markers from rapeseed (Brassica napus) amongst sympatric and allopatric populations of wild B. oleracea in natural cliff-top populations and B. rapa in riverside and weedy populations. We found only modest crop chloroplast presence in wild B. oleracea and in weedy B. rapa, but a surprisingly high incidence in sympatric (but not in allopatric) riverside B. rapa populations. Chloroplast inheritance models indicate that elevated crop chloroplast acquisition is best explained if crop cytoplasm confers selective advantage in riverside B. rapa populations. Our results therefore imply that chloroplast transformation may slow transgene recruitment in two settings, but actually accelerate transgene spread in a third. This finding suggests that the appropriateness of chloroplast transformation for biocontainment policy depends on both context and geographical location.

Common and specific effects of couples treatment for alcoholism: a test of the generic model of psychotherapy.

The generic model of psychotherapy (Orlinsky & Howard, 1987) eschews the view that inputs, processes or outputs associated with treatment exert linear and independent effects on outcomes. Variables within these three clusters must be viewed both within the context of time and through their interactions with other variables within a class. This study illustrates the use of this model by identifying common (comprising both traditional relationship factors and shared therapy ingredients) and specific factors in cognitive-behavioural (CB) and family systems (FS) treatments for alcoholic couples and tracking their contributions over two treatment phases - the acute phase, and the follow-up phase. While four process variables (therapy type, intensity of treatment, common elements and FS-specific procedures) contributed to outcomes during the active treatment phase, these variables became more interactive during follow-up. Indeed, high levels of both specific interventions of both treatments were negatively associated with benefit, if common factors were also frequently used during the acute phase. The best effects were obtained when common and specific interventions were counterbalanced, one being frequently used and the other being infrequently used. Implications for future alcohol treatment and recommendations for research on common and specific factors are discussed.

Assembling spatially explicit landscape models of pollen and spore dispersal by wind for risk assessment.

Models of windblown pollen or spore movement are required to predict gene flow from genetically modified (GM) crops and the spread of fungal diseases. We suggest a simple form for a function describing the distance moved by a pollen grain or fungal spore, for use in generic models of dispersal. The function has power-law behaviour over sub-continental distances. We show that air-borne dispersal of rapeseed pollen in two experiments was inconsistent with an exponential model, but was fitted by power-law models, implying a large contribution from distant fields to the catches observed. After allowance for this 'background' by applying Fourier transforms to deconvolve the mixture of distant and local sources, the data were best fit by power-laws with exponents between 1.5 and 2. We also demonstrate that for a simple model of area sources, the median dispersal distance is a function of field radius and that measurement from the source edge can be misleading. Using an inverse-square dispersal distribution deduced from the experimental data and the distribution of rapeseed fields deduced by remote sensing, we successfully predict observed rapeseed pollen density in the city centres of Derby and Leicester (UK).

Virtual reality in psychotherapy training.

Virtual reality (VR) has myriad applications to psychotherapy training and has manifold adjunctive or primary applications to psychotherapeutic treatments. Unfortunately, VR technology has not yet advanced to a point where many of these applications are readily available or even affordable; however, alternatives are available, and the creative investigator may build upon existing, available, and affordable technology to develop simple VR systems. Eventually, more sophisticated equipment and design features that increasingly approximate the VR three-dimensional emersion environments may be added in a stepwise fashion to create more realistic iterations of the VR psychotherapeutic environment. In our initial VR training endeavor, elements of the empirically supported and multifaceted Systematic Treatment Selection model (STS, Beutler & Clarkin, 1990; Beutler, Clarkin, & Bongar, 2000; Beutler & Harwood, 2000) were chosen as training criteria and incorporated into our VR training system to demonstrate both its feasibility and practicality. This article outlines our initial endeavor in the development of a VR system for training in psychotherapy and summarizes STS training-relevant research findings. Future directions for the applications of VR technology to both training and treatment are provided.

Interactions between psychotherapy procedures and patient attributes that predict alcohol treatment effectiveness: a preliminary report.

This study examined interactions between patient attributes and therapist interventions on alcoholism treatment outcome. Process analyses of an early psychotherapy session from either cognitive-behavioral (CBT) or family systems (FST) therapy and baseline patient information (N=47) were used to measure theory-based therapy and patient variables. Hierarchical linear regression was used to test the effect of each patient-therapy interaction on changes in drinking behavior. Two disordinal interactions were predictors of alcohol use during the maintenance phase of treatment. Patients high in emotional distress did best when their therapy addressed emotional experiences, and the converse was observed for patients low in distress. Patients high in reactance had better drinking outcomes when their therapy was nondirective, and patients low in reactance improved more with directive therapy. In contrast to the interactions between patient attributes and the therapy process, the interactions between patient attributes and treatment model (CBT versus FST) were not reliable predictors of alcohol use.

Antiscientific attitudes: what happens when scientists are unscientific?

Scientists sometimes engage in quite unscientific behavior in order to influence their peers or to obtain secondary gain. We explore some of the causes and consequences of these acts, using examples of different ways in which antiscientific attitudes are manifest among scientists.

Optimizing outcome in the very elderly surgical patient.

The number of very elderly patients undergoing surgery is expected to increase substantially in the first part of this century. This article reviews the recent findings on perioperative interventions that may improve the outcomes of this particularly challenging group of patients.

The safety and effectiveness of esmolol in the perioperative period in patients undergoing abdominal aortic surgery.

OBJECTIVES: To determine (1) if perioperative use of esmolol in major vascular surgery patients provides strict heart rate (HR) control, (2) what doses of esmolol are required to do this, and (3) does this control influence myocardial ischemia or result in adverse consequences. DESIGN: Prospective study of 40 patients randomized to two groups: The HR was controlled to either less than 80 beats/min (group 80) or less than 110 beats/min (group 110) using esmolol. Patients were monitored continuously for electrocardiographic changes perioperatively. HR control began after induction of anesthesia and continued for 48 hours thereafter. SETTING: Operating room and intensive care unit. PATIENTS: Patients undergoing abdominal vascular surgery involving aortic cross-clamping. INTERVENTIONS: Esmolol was titrated until the target HR was met. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Only one patient demonstrated an adverse effect. The median infusion rates were 100 and 12.5 microg/kg/min for groups 80 and 110. Target HR was met less in group 80 than in group 110, primarily in the postoperative period. Ischemia patterns were not significantly different between groups. CONCLUSION: Using esmolol for HR control in the intraoperative period for abdominal vascular surgery patients is effective and safe. HR control was much less effective in the postoperative period, but esmolol is safe when used at recommended doses. Further study with a larger number of patients is necessary to determine whether strict HR control with esmolol affects the incidence of myocardial ischemia or infarction in this patient population.

Plasma bupivacaine concentrations and effects of epinephrine after superficial cervical plexus blockade in patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if epinephrine (EPI) added to a solution of bupivacaine (BUP) injected for use in superficial cervical plexus blockade (SCPB) lowers plasma BUP concentrations after injection and whether this addition of EPI resulted in tachycardia, cardiac arrhythmias, or both. DESIGN: Randomized, unblinded prospective clinical interventional study. PARTICIPANTS: Patients scheduled to undergo carotid endarterectomy using SCPB consenting to study. SETTING: University-affiliated tertiary care hospital operating room. INTERVENTIONS: Twenty patients were given SCPB with BUP 0.5% and were randomized to receive either no EPI or 1:300,000 EPI. This study block was followed by a second period in which 20 patients were given SCPB with BUP 0.25% randomized to receive either no EPI or 1:300,000 EPI. Continuous electrocardiogram monitoring was performed during and after the block and analyzed for heart rate and rhythm changes. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Arterial plasma BUP concentrations were measured 2.5 to 120 minutes after initiation of SCPB. Plasma BUP concentrations were highest in the 0.5% no EPI group, followed by the 0.5% EPI, 0.25% no EPI, and 0.25% EPI groups. The use of EPI did not significantly affect heart rate or change the incidence of cardiac arrhythmias. CONCLUSIONS: BUP 0.25% consistently produced the lowest plasma BUP concentrations, particularly when EPI was added to the solution. BUP 0.5% without EPI can produce plasma BUP concentrations previously reported to be associated with central nervous system effects. The use of EPI in this setting does not produce untoward cardiac side effects.

Cytoskeletal alterations leading to Mallory body formation in livers of mice fed 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine.

Cytoskeletal alterations of hepatocytes were studied in mice fed 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine from the onset of the experiment to the time when Mallory bodies were induced, using immunofluorescent microscopy and a method which we devised in order to visualize the cytoskeletal framework of hepatocytes. The results showed that the cytoskeletal framework of the normal murine hepatocyte is composed of a network of uniformly distributed, interconnecting bundles of filaments. In the drug-fed mice, the cytoskeletal network of the hepatocytes became coarser and distorted. The Mallory body-containing hepatocytes were mostly devoid of cytoskeletal filaments, containing only a few thick bundles of filaments, which appeared partly smudgy and electron-dense. These results suggest that the formation of Mallory bodies in this animal model is associated with a marked derangement of the cytoskeletal framework, which appears to result from the progressive loss of normal filaments and the aggregation of abnormal ones.

Experimental production of Mallory bodies in mice by diet containing 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine.

The first experimental production of Mallory bodies was reported by Denk et al. in 1975 in mice fed griseofulvin. We discovered a second chemical capable of producing Mallory bodies in the mouse liver in a manner similar to griseofulvin. Male Swiss albino mice were fed a powdered standard diet containing 2.5% of 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine up to 95 days. The animals were killed at intervals and their livers were examined by light and electron microscopy. In general, the morphologic changes in the liver were similar to, but more marked than, those seen in griseofulvin-fed mice. Mallory bodies were first observed in the livers of mice killed at 40 days. In our previous experiment using griseofulvin, we first observed Mallory bodies in mice killed at 61 days. These observations suggest that 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine may be more effective than griseofulvin in the production of Mallory bodies in mice.

Griseofulvin-induced cholestasis in Swiss albino mice.

Griseofulvin was fed to male Swiss albino mice, which were sacrificed at varying times after the initiation of the feeding. The following were compared with mice fed a control diet: hepatic histology, hepatic weight, plasma glycocholate, glycolithocholate, cholesterol, bilirubin, and alkaline phosphatase. Concurrent with the development of hepatic protoporphyria, a progressive cholestatic lesion was produced with marked bile canalicular dilatation and elevation of the plasma bile salts, alkaline phosphatase, and cholesterol without a rise in bilirubin. Adaptation to the cholestatic injury occurred in about 60 days despite continued griseofulvin feeding. This was evidenced by decreased values in the biochemical profile with concomitant improvement in the bile canalicular morphology. Following this event of adaptation, Mallory bodies began to appear in the livers, often in the periphery of the hepatic lobule. This model may be useful in studying mechanisms of cholestasis, Mallory body formation, and their relationship to altered microtubular systems in the hepatocyte.

Prognosis for recovery of function in acute renal failure. Value of the renal image obtained using iodohippurate sodium I 131.

Twenty-four survivors of acute, nonobstructive, nonnephritic renal failure had a renal scan using iodohippurate sodium I 131 performed early in the acute illness. Scans were judged according to whether the renal images were prominent, faint, or absent during the first 30 minutes after intravenous injection of 100 to 250 microcuries of iodohippurate sodium I 131. All ten patients with prominent renal images attained life-sustaining renal function with an average postrecovery creatinine clearance of 80 ml/min. Of the seven patients with faint renal images, six recovered life-sustaining renal function (average creatinine clearance of 39 ml/min), and one required chronic hemodialysis. Seven patients had no renal image initially; four recovered life-sustaining renal function with an average creatinine clearance of 25 ml/min; three required chronic hemodialysis. We conclude that, for patients with acute renal failure, the appearance of the renal image obtained using this substance is an important indicator of renal viability and of the likelihood for functional recovery.