Training Session Models in Endurance Sports: A Norwegian Perspective on Best Practice Recommendations.

BACKGROUND: Our scientific understanding of the mechanistic and practical connections between training session prescriptions, their execution by athletes, and adaptations over time in elite endurance sports remains limited. These connections are fundamental to the art and science of coaching. OBJECTIVE: By using successful Norwegian endurance coaches as key informants, the aim of this study is to describe and compare best practice session models across different exercise intensities in Olympic endurance sports. METHODS: Data collection was based on a four-step pragmatic qualitative study design, involving questionnaires, training logs from successful athletes, and in-depth and semi-structured interviews, followed by negotiation among researchers and coaches to assure our interpretations. Twelve successful and experienced male Norwegian coaches from biathlon, cross-country skiing, long-distance running, road cycling, rowing, speed skating, swimming, and triathlon were chosen as key informants. They had been responsible for the training of world-class endurance athletes who altogether have won > 370 medals in international championships. RESULTS: The duration of low-intensity training (LIT) sessions ranges from 30 min to 7 h across sports, mainly due to modality-specific constraints and load tolerance considerations. Cross-training accounts for a considerable part of LIT sessions in several sports. Moderate (MIT)- and high-intensity training (HIT) sessions are mainly conducted as intervals in specific modalities, but competitions also account for a large proportion of annual HIT in most sports. Interval sessions are characterized by a high accumulated volume, a progressive increase in intensity throughout the session, and a controlled, rather than exhaustive, execution approach. A clear trend towards shorter intervals and lower work: rest ratio with increasing intensity was observed. Overall, the analyzed sports implement considerably more MIT than HIT sessions across the annual cycle. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides novel insights on quantitative and qualitative aspects of training session models across intensities employed by successful athletes in Olympic endurance sports. The interval training sessions revealed in this study are generally more voluminous, more controlled, and less exhaustive than most previous recommendations outlined in research literature.

Menstrual Cycle Phase has no Influence on Performance-Determining Variables in Endurance-Trained Athletes: The FENDURA Project.

PURPOSE: To investigate the effect of the MC and endogenous sex hormone concentrations on performance-determining variables in three distinct MC phases in endurance-trained females. METHODS: Twenty-one eumenorrheic trained/highly trained endurance athletes completed a standardized test battery during the early follicular phase (EFP), ovulatory phase (OP), and mid-luteal phase (MLP) for either one (n = 7) or two test cycles (n = 14). MC phases were determined using calendar-based counting, urinary ovulation testing, and verified with serum hormone analysis. MCs were retrospectively classified as eumenorrheic or disturbed. Disturbed MCs were excluded from analysis. The test battery consisted of 4-6 x 5-min submaximal stages with stepwise speed increases, a 30-s all-out double-poling ski ergometer test, and a maximal incremental treadmill running test. RESULTS: At a group level, there was no effect of MC phase or the serum concentrations of estrogen and progesterone on peak oxygen uptake ( O 2peak ), oxygen uptake at 4 mmol·L -1 blood lactate concentration, time-to-exhaustion, running economy, or mean 30-s power output (MPO 30s ). Serum testosterone concentration was positively associated with MPO 30s (p = 0.016). Changes in O 2peak from EFP to MLP were inconsistent between individuals and across cycles. CONCLUSIONS: None of the measured performance-determining variables were influenced by MC phase or serum estrogen or progesterone concentrations. While some individual patterns could be observed, there was no indication that any single MC phase is consistently associated with improved or impaired O 2peak on a group level.

Evolution of 1500-m Olympic Running Performance.

PURPOSE: This study determined the evolution of performance and pacing for each winner of the men's Olympic 1500-m running track final from 1924 to 2020. METHODS: Data were obtained from publicly available sources. When official splits were unavailable, times from sources such as YouTube were included and interpolated from video records. Final times, lap splits, and position in the peloton were included. The data are presented relative to 0 to 400 m, 400 to 800 m, 800 to 1200 m, and 1200 to 1500 m. Critical speed and D' were calculated using athletes' season's best times. RESULTS: Performance improved ∼25 seconds from 1924 to 2020, with most improvement (∼19 s) occurring in the first 10 finals. However, only 2 performances were world records, and only one runner won the event twice. Pacing evolved from a fast start-slow middle-fast finish pattern (reverse J-shaped) to a slower start with steady acceleration in the second half (J-shaped). The coefficient of variation for lap speeds ranged from 1.4% to 15.3%, consistent with a highly tactical pacing pattern. With few exceptions, the eventual winners were near the front throughout, although rarely in the leading position. There is evidence of a general increase in both critical speed and D' that parallels performance. CONCLUSIONS: An evolution in the pacing pattern occurred across several "eras" in the history of Olympic 1500-m racing, consistent with better trained athletes and improved technology. There has been a consistent tactical approach of following opponents until the latter stages, and athletes should develop tactical flexibility, related to their critical speed and D', in planning prerace strategy.

From juniors to seniors: changes in training characteristics and aerobic power in 17 world-class cross-country skiers.

Purpose: To compare training characteristics and aerobic power (VO2max) between the most successful junior and senior seasons of world-class cross-country (XC) skiers and to identify differences between sexes and among sprint and distance skiers. Methods: Retrospective analysis was conducted on self-reported training and VO2max tests of ten male and seven female world-class XC-skiers, collectively holding 38 Olympic medals. Training was categorized by form (endurance, strength, speed, other) and mode (specific, unspecific) and was divided into low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT). Results: Total training increased by 203 ± 130 h (35% ± 31%, p < .001, large effect) and 78 ± 69 sessions (21% ± 24%, p < .001, very large effect). Junior training volume (658 ± 107 h) did not correlate with senior volume (861 ± 74 h) but correlated negatively with changes in volume (r = -.822, p < .001). No sex differences were observed related to total volume, but distance skiers increased their total volume more than sprint skiers (p = .037, large effect). Endurance training increased by 197 ± 117 h (p < .001; large effect) tied to increased low-intensity training (186 ± 115 h, p < .001; large effect) and moderate-intensity training (13 ± 7 h, p < .001; large effect). Training intensity distribution (% LIT/MIT/HIT) was 91/3/6 in junior and 92/4/4 in senior season. Women demonstrated greater increase of unspecific modes (100 ± 58 vs. 37 ± 44 h, p = .022; large effect) and strength training (25 ± 23 vs. -3 ± 17 h, p = .010, large effect). Men improved absolute (8% ± 5%; p = .009; large effect) and relative VO2max (6% ± 4%; p = .016; large effect) from junior to senior, while women only increased relative VO2max (7% ± 5%, p = .012; large effect). Conclusion: This study provides novel information regarding changes in training characteristics and aerobic power from junior to senior age in world-class XC-skiers. Overall, the enhanced training volume during this transition was primarily driven by increased LIT and MIT and the exceptionally high relative VO2max at junior age further increased in both sexes.

Reliability and Validity of Different Lower-Limb Strength Tests to Determine 1RM in the Keiser A300 Leg Press.

ABSTRACT: Larsen, F, Loturco, I, Sigvaldsen, E, Strand, MF, Kalhovde, JM, and Haugen, T. Reliability and validity of different lower-limb strength tests to determine 1RM in the Keiser A300 leg press. J Strength Cond Res 37(10): 1963-1968, 2023-The aim of this study was to explore the reliability and validity of different lower-limb strength tests to determine the one-repetition maximum (1RM) value in the Keiser A300 leg press. Twenty-eight recreationally active subjects performed load-velocity (L-V) relationship, 1RM, isometric midthigh pull (IMTP), and maximal repetitions to failure (MRF) tests on 3 separated sessions. Predicted 1RMs for the L-V relationship were estimated from a linear regression equation, correlating movement velocity and relative loads. The number of repetitions from the MRF tests (at loads relative to bodyweight) and peak force from the IMTP tests were used in regression equations to predict 1RM. The level of significance was set to ρ ≤ 0.05. All 1RM prediction methods were highly comparable with the traditional 1RM test, as only trivial and nonsignificant differences were observed. Furthermore, the L-V relationship was the most reliable (intraclass correlation coefficient [± 95% confidence interval] = 0.99 [0.98, 0.996]; effect size = -0.01 [-0.38, 0.36], standard error of the measurement = 6.4 kg; coefficient of variation = 3.0 [2.2-3.8]% and valid (r = 0.95 [0.89, 0.98], effect size = 0.08 [-0.29, 0.45], standard error of the estimate = 20.4 kg; coefficient of variation = 7.4 [5.5-9.3]%) when compared with direct 1RM measurements. The L-V relationship test showed a significant change score relationship (r = 0.41 [0.04, 0.68]) against the direct 1RM measurements. In conclusion, the tests used in this study cannot be used interchangeably, but they represent a good alternative in training settings where 1RM testing is not feasible.

Validity and reliability of upper body push and pull tests to determine one-repetition maximum.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to explore the validity and reliability of three different strength testing approaches to determine one-repetition maximum (1RM) in the bench press and prone bench pull. METHODS: Twenty-eight recreationally active subjects (25 ± 2 years, 178 ± 8 cm, 78 ± 9 kg) were assessed for load-velocity (L-V) relationship, 1RM, maximal isometric force (MIF), and maximal repetitions to failure (MRF) in a Smith Machine on three separated sessions. Linear regression was used for L-V relationship, MIF, and MRF to predict 1RM. Level of significance was set to ρ ≤ 0.05. RESULTS: Reliability analyses of the varying 1RM estimations revealed mean differences from 0.6 to -1.3 kg (mainly trivial effects) between test days 1 and 2, intraclass correlation coefficient was > 0.96, and coefficient of variation (CV) was in the range 2.3-8.3% for all tests. Regarding validity, all 1RM predictions exhibited a mean difference ≤ 1.3 kg (trivial), except for the L-V relationship method that underestimated the predicted 1RM by 5 kg (small) compared to the actual bench press 1RM. However, the L-V relationship method showed the least mean absolute errors. CVs were in the range 4.5-13.2%. Standard error of the estimate was in the range 3.2-9.7 kg. Change scores for all tests were significantly correlated with change scores in actual 1RM, except for MIF in the prone bench pull. Smallest deviations in 1RM predictions were observed for the L-V relationship approach. CONCLUSIONS: All 1RM prediction methods were highly comparable to the traditional 1RM test. However, given the high variability associated with individual predictions for each method, they cannot be used interchangeably.

Monitoring Changes in Lower-Limb Strength and Power in Elite Athletes With the Countermovement-Jump and Keiser Leg-Press Tests.

PURPOSE: To determine the utility of countermovement-jump and Keiser leg-press tests for tracking changes in elite athletes of different sports. METHODS: Elite athletes of the Norwegian Olympic Federation (126 individuals from 18 sports) performed countermovement-jump and Keiser tests on 2 to 11 occasions between 2014 and 2021. Separate analyses were performed for male and female alpine skiing, male and female handball, male ice hockey, and males and females of other sports. Means and standard deviations of consecutive change scores were combined with short-term error of measurement (3.7%-7.0%) and smallest important changes (2.0%-3.6%, defined by standardization) to determine the proportions of athletes who experienced decisive changes in 2 senses: first, the athlete did not get substantially worse or better (>90% chance of either), and second, the athlete did get substantially worse or better (>90% chance of either). RESULTS: Averaged over sports, Keiser peak power and relative peak power had the highest proportions of decisive changes in the first (60% and 55%) and second senses (25% and 28%). The velocity intercept of the force-velocity relationship had the lowest proportions in the first and second senses (29% and 11%), while jump height, Keiser mean power, relative mean power, the force intercept, and the slope of the force-velocity relationship had similar proportions (40%-53% and 15%-21%). CONCLUSIONS: With the possible exception of the Keiser test velocity intercept, the proportions of observed decisive changes in elite athletes using Keiser measures and countermovement-jump height between tests appear adequate for the measures to be useful for routine monitoring.

The Evolution of World-Class Endurance Training: The Scientist's View on Current and Future Trends.

BACKGROUND: Elite sport is continuously evolving. World records keep falling and athletes from a longer list of countries are involved. PURPOSE: This commentary was designed to provide insights into present and future trends associated with world-class endurance training based on the perspectives, experience, and knowledge of an expert panel of 25 applied sport scientists. RESULTS: The key drivers of development observed in the past 10-15 years were related to (1) more accessible scientific knowledge for coaches and athletes combined with (2) better integration of practical and scientific exchange across multidisciplinary perspectives within professionalized elite athlete support structures, as well as (3) utilization of new technological advances. Based on these perspectives, we discerned and exemplified the main trends in the practice of endurance sports into the following categories: better understanding of sport-specific demands; improved competition execution; larger, more specific, and more precise training loads; improved training quality; and a more professional and healthier lifestyle. The main areas expected to drive future improvements were associated with more extensive use of advanced technology for monitoring and prescribing training and recovery, more precise use of environmental and nutritional interventions, better understanding of athlete-equipment interactions, and greater emphasis on preventing injuries and illnesses. CONCLUSIONS: These expert insights can serve as a platform and inspiration to develop new hypotheses and ideas, encourage future collaboration between researchers and sport practitioners, and, perhaps most important, stimulate curiosity and further collaborative studies about the training, physiology, and performance of endurance athletes.

Strength and Conditioning Practices of Brazilian Olympic Sprint and Jump Coaches.

Olympic coaches are likely to have adequate knowledge and implement effective training programs. This study aimed to describe and critically examine the strength and conditioning practices adopted by Brazilian Olympic sprint and jump coaches. Nineteen Olympic coaches (age: 50.2 ± 10.8 years; professional experience: 25.9 ± 13.1 years) completed a survey consisting of eight sections: 1) background information; 2) strength-power development; 3) speed training; 4) plyometrics; 5) flexibility training; 6) physical testing; 7) technology use; and 8) programming. It was noticed that coaches prioritized the development of explosiveness, power, and sprinting speed in their training programs, given the specific requirements of sprint and jump events. Nevertheless, unexpectedly, we observed: (1) large variations in the number of repetitions performed per set during resistance training in the off-season period, (2) a higher volume of resistance training prescribed during the competitive period (compared to other sports), and (3) infrequent use of traditional periodization models. These findings are probably related to the complex characteristics of modern competitive sports (e.g., congested competitive schedule) and the individual needs of sprinters and jumpers. Identification of training practices commonly used by leading track and field coaches may help practitioners and sport scientists create more effective research projects and training programs.

Training Quality-What Is It and How Can We Improve It?

PURPOSE: The concept of training quality reflects that the effect of training is dependent on more than the mere product of training load (eg, duration, intensity, frequency). The aims of this commentary are to (1) propose a practice-oriented framework to describe training quality and its general and context-dependent characteristics and (2) discuss how athletes and coaches can work to improve training quality. CONCLUSIONS: Training quality can be viewed from different perspectives. The holistic dimension includes the entire training process (goal setting, gap analysis, application of training principles and methods, etc), while a narrower dimension encompasses the specific training sessions and how they are executed in relation to the intended purpose. To capture the varying contexts, we define training quality as the degree of excellence related to how the training process or training sessions are executed to optimize adaptations and, thereby, improve overall performance. Although training quality is challenging to quantify, we argue that identification and assessment of quality indicators will increase our scientific understanding and consequently help coaches and athletes to improve training quality. We propose that the physical, technical, and psychological factors of training quality can be improved through an individualized learning process of systematic planning, execution, and debriefing. However, assessment tools should be identified and scientifically validated across different training sessions and sports. We encourage further interventions to improve training quality.

The validity and reliability of walking as exercise modality during VO2max testing.

BACKGROUND: Although walking is the most common exercise modality in daily life for most humans, running and cycling are the most applied exercise modalities during maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) testing. The aim of this study was to assess the reliability and validity of walking as exercise modality during VO2max testing. METHODS: Sixteen participants (25±3 years, 172±9 cm, 69±15 kg, and VO2max 50±4 mL/kg/min) performed four incremental running- and walking VO2max tests (two tests in each condition) within 2-3 weeks. During the walking condition, the speed was set to 7 km/h, and the treadmill incline increased by 2.5% each min until exhaustion. Results from these tests were validated against a running protocol with 5.3% treadmill incline where the speed increased by 1 km/h each min until exhaustion. RESULTS: The walking protocol achieved similar reliability values for absolute and relative VO2max when compared to the running condition. No significant differences in VO2max were observed between test session 1 and 2 for any of the tests. Significantly higher absolute VO2max (3.39±0.77 vs. 3.50±0.84 L/min; trivial difference) were observed in the running versus walking condition, while no significant differences in relative VO2max, BLa or Borg were detected. CVs for absolute and relative VO2max between the analyzed exercise modalities were ~5%. CONCLUSIONS: Although the present participants achieved 2-3% lower VO2max when the walking test protocol was applied, walking seems to be a promising exercise-modality alternative during VO2max testing in clinical settings.

Variations in Physical and Competitive Performance of Highly Trained Sprinters Across an Annual Training Season.

ABSTRACT: Loturco, I, Fernandes, V, Bishop, C, Mercer, VP, Siqueira, F, Nakaya, K, Pereira, LA, and Haugen, T. Variations in physical and competitive performance of highly trained sprinters across an annual training season. J Strength Cond Res 37(5): 1104-1110, 2023-We assessed the changes in sprint, jump, and power parameters across the annual training cycle and tested the longitudinal correlations among these variables in top-level sprinters. Thirteen sprinters training with 4 different Olympic sprint coaches were sequentially assessed over 14 months, from January 2019 to March 2020, within 4 consecutive training camps. Performance tests were conducted as follows: standing long jump, squat and countermovement jumps, 10-m and 60-m sprint time, and maximum power output in the half-squat, jump-squat, and hip-thrust exercises. The competitive results of the sprinters throughout the study period were also recorded and analyzed. A repeated measures analysis of variance was used to compare the physical measurements between different testing sessions. A Pearson product-moment correlation was applied to examine the longitudinal relationships between changes in speed-related and power-related parameters. Percentage change was computed and compared with coefficient of variation values to determine whether changes in performance metrics were higher than the test variance, thus providing an indication of whether true changes occurred on an individual basis. Overall, sprinters did not exhibit significant changes in sprint speed, jumping ability, and power output. In addition, variations in competitive times (i.e., 100 m races) followed a similar pattern, within an average range of ±1.36%, for both male and female sprinters. As expected, top-level sprinters presented only small variations in physical and competitive performance over time. Nevertheless, the use of an individual statistical technique (i.e., true changes calculation) revealed that these nonsignificant increases or decreases may represent meaningful changes in their competitive potential.

The Effect of Flying Sprints at 90% to 95% of Maximal Velocity on Sprint Performance.

PURPOSE: Submaximal sprinting allows for larger accumulated work to be reached before the onset of fatigue, compared with maximal efforts. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of sprint running at 90% to 95% of maximal velocity (Vmax) on sprint performance. METHODS: Recreationally active adults were randomly assigned into a control group (n = 12, 27 [5] y, 172 [9] cm, 72 [15] kg) and a training group (n = 14, 26 [4] y, 171 [9] cm, 69 [11] kg). Both groups completed pretesting and posttesting in form of a 30-m sprint separated by a 6-week period. The training group performed a weekly sprint-training session consisting of 30-m flying sprints at 90% to 95% of Vmax, while the control group performed no intervention training. RESULTS: Significant improvements in the training group were observed for 10- (P = .003), 20- (P = .001), and 30-m sprint time (P = .002). These improvements were accompanied by higher step rate (P = .006) and theoretical Vmax (P = .007) and maximal power (P = .004). Significant between-groups differences were observed for 10- (P = .008), 20- (P < .001), and 30-m sprint time (P < .001), as well as for step rate (P = .015), theoretical Vmax (P = .016), and maximal power (P = .008). All within- and between-groups differences were in the range of trivial to small. CONCLUSION: Sprint running at 90% to 95% of Vmax can enhance 10- to 30-m sprint performance in recreationally active adults.

Peak Age and Performance Trajectories in Para Powerlifters.

OBJECTIVE: This study established the age-related performance trajectories in Para powerlifters, thereby presenting valuable information for athlete development. DESIGN: Data on athlete date of birth, body mass, and weight lifted in competition were analyzed for 2079 athletes between 1994 and 2019. RESULTS: Age-related performance trajectories showed that men and women lift their heaviest weights in competition at 36 and 41 yrs of age, respectively. This correspond to the mean age of competitors in the heaviest bodyweight categories at elite competitions (men 36 yrs, women 43 yrs), who were older than competitors in lighter bodyweight categories. It is possible that para powerlifters "move up" bodyweight categories as they get older and before lifting their heaviest weights in competition. High-performing athletes lifted their heaviest weight in competition 2.6 yrs earlier than lower performing peers, and the best performances in most bodyweight categories were achieved by athletes between 31 and 35 yrs of age. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that para powerlifters should reach their peak performance in their early to mid-30s and before age-related changes to neural and hormonal processes impact muscular strength. This information can help coaches and athletes evaluate their strategies for achieving success in para powerlifting.

Training Practices of Football Players During the Early COVID-19 Lockdown Worldwide.

The COVID-19 lockdown challenged the training options of athletes worldwide, including players from the most popular sport globally, football/soccer. PURPOSE: The authors explored the training practices of football players worldwide during the COVID-19 lockdown. METHODS: Football players (N = 2482, 30% professional, 22% semipro, and 48% amateur) completed an online survey (May-July 2020) on their training practices before versus during lockdown (March-June 2020). Questions were related to training frequency and session duration, as well as training knowledge and attitudes. RESULTS: Before lockdown, more professional (87%) than semipro (67%) and amateur (65%) players trained ≥5 sessions/wk, but this proportion decreased during the lockdown to 55%, 35%, and 42%, respectively. Players (80%-87%) trained ≥60 minutes before lockdown, but this proportion decreased to 45% in professionals, 43% in amateurs, and 36% in semipros during lockdown. At home, more than two-thirds of players had training space (73%) and equipment (66%) for cardiorespiratory training, while availability of equipment for technical and strength training was <50% during lockdown. Interactions between coach/trainer and player were more frequent (ie, daily) among professional (27%) than amateur (11%) and semipro (17%) players. Training load monitoring, albeit limited, was mostly performed by fitness coaches, more so with professionals (35%) than amateurs (13%) and semipros (17%). The players' training knowledge and attitudes/beliefs toward training were relatively modest (50%-59%). CONCLUSION: COVID-19 lockdown negatively affected training practices of football players worldwide, especially amateurs and semipros, for example, in training frequency, duration, intensity, technical, recovery, and other fitness training and coaching-related aspects. During lockdown-like situations, players should be monitored closely and provided appropriate support to facilitate their training.

Validity and Reliability of a Motorized Sprint Resistance Device.

ABSTRACT: Rakovic, E, Paulsen, G, Helland, C, Haugen, T, and Eriksrud, O. Validity and reliability of a motorized sprint resistance device. J Strength Cond Res 36(8): 2335-2338, 2022-An increasing number of sprint-related studies have used motorized devices to provide resistance while sprinting. The aim of this study was to establish within-session reliability and criterion validity of sprint times obtained from a motorized resistance device. Seventeen elite, female, handball players (22.9 ± 3.0 years; 176.5 ± 6.5 cm; 72.7 ± 5.5 kg; training volume 9.3 ± 0.7 hours per week) performed two 30-m sprints under 3 different resistance loading conditions (50, 80 and 110 N). Sprint times (t0-5m, t5-10m, t10-15m, t15-20m, t20-30m, and t0-30m) were assessed simultaneously by a 1080 Sprint motorized resistance device and a postprocessing timing system. The results showed that 1080 Sprint timing was equivalent to the postprocessing timing system within the limits of precision (±0.01 seconds). A systematic bias of approximately 0.34 ± 0.01 seconds was observed for t0-5m caused by different athlete location and velocity at triggering point between the systems. Coefficient of variation was approximately 2% for t0-5 and approximately 1% for the other time intervals, although standard error of measurement ranged from 0.01 to 0.05 seconds, depending on distance and phase of sprint. Intraclass correlation ranged from 0.86 to 0.95. In conclusion, the present study shows that the 1080 Sprint is valid and reliable for sprint performance monitoring purposes.

Strength and Power Testing of Athletes: Associations of Common Assessments Over Time.

PURPOSE: This study examined the associations among common assessments for measuring strength and power in the lower body of high-performing athletes, including both cross-sectional and longitudinal data. METHODS: A total of 100 participants, including both male (n = 83) and female (n = 17) athletes (21 [4] y, 182 [9] cm, 78 [12] kg), were recruited for the study using a multicenter approach. The participants underwent physical testing 4 times. The first 2 sessions (1 and 2) were separated by ∼1 week, followed by a period of 2 to 6 months, whereas the last 2 sessions (3 and 4) were also separated by ∼1 week. The test protocol consisted of squat jumps, countermovement jumps, jump and reach, 30-m sprint, 1-repetition-maximum squat, sprint cycling, and a leg-press test. RESULTS: There were generally acceptable correlations among all performance measures. Variables from the countermovement jumps and leg-press power correlated strongly with all performance assessments (r = .52-.79), while variables from sprint running and squat-jump power displayed more incoherent correlations (r = .21-.82). For changes over time, the correlations were mostly strong, albeit systematically weaker than for cross-sectional measures. CONCLUSIONS: The associations observed among the performance assessments seem to be consistent for both cross-sectional data and longitudinal change scores. The weaker correlations for change scores are most likely mainly caused by lower between-subjects variations in the change scores than for the cross-sectional data. The present study provides novel information, helping researchers and practitioners to better interpret the relationships across common performance assessment methods.

COVID-19 Lockdown: A Global Study Investigating the Effect of Athletes' Sport Classification and Sex on Training Practices.

PURPOSE: To investigate differences in athletes' knowledge, beliefs, and training practices during COVID-19 lockdowns with reference to sport classification and sex. This work extends an initial descriptive evaluation focusing on athlete classification. METHODS: Athletes (12,526; 66% male; 142 countries) completed an online survey (May-July 2020) assessing knowledge, beliefs, and practices toward training. Sports were classified as team sports (45%), endurance (20%), power/technical (10%), combat (9%), aquatic (6%), recreational (4%), racquet (3%), precision (2%), parasports (1%), and others (1%). Further analysis by sex was performed. RESULTS: During lockdown, athletes practiced body-weight-based exercises routinely (67% females and 64% males), ranging from 50% (precision) to 78% (parasports). More sport-specific technical skills were performed in combat, parasports, and precision (∼50%) than other sports (∼35%). Most athletes (range: 50% [parasports] to 75% [endurance]) performed cardiorespiratory training (trivial sex differences). Compared to prelockdown, perceived training intensity was reduced by 29% to 41%, depending on sport (largest decline: ∼38% in team sports, unaffected by sex). Some athletes (range: 7%-49%) maintained their training intensity for strength, endurance, speed, plyometric, change-of-direction, and technical training. Athletes who previously trained ≥5 sessions per week reduced their volume (range: 18%-28%) during lockdown. The proportion of athletes (81%) training ≥60 min/session reduced by 31% to 43% during lockdown. Males and females had comparable moderate levels of training knowledge (56% vs 58%) and beliefs/attitudes (54% vs 56%). CONCLUSIONS: Changes in athletes' training practices were sport-specific, with few or no sex differences. Team-based sports were generally more susceptible to changes than individual sports. Policy makers should provide athletes with specific training arrangements and educational resources to facilitate remote and/or home-based training during lockdown-type events.