Expression and regulation of histidine decarboxylase mRNA expression in the uterus during pregnancy in the mouse.

It has been hypothesized that hormonally regulated histamine production plays a role in preparation of the uterus for implantation. Histidine decarboxylase (HDC) is the rate-limiting enzyme for histamine production. The current study was designed to determine intrauterine expression of HDC mRNA expression during pregnancy in the mouse. High levels of HDC mRNA expression were observed in the preimplantation mouse uterus with peak expression occurring on day 4. High levels of HDC mRNA expression were also detected in the post-implantation uterus. In an effort to determine whether HDC mRNA is regulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines, the HDC mRNA pattern was compared to intrauterine expression of mRNA's for interleukin-1alpha (IL-1alpha), IL-1beta, macrophage chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) and RANTES (regulated on activation, normal T expressed and secreted) during the peri-implantation period. IL-1beta, MCP-1 and RANTES mRNA levels were increased in the uterus on days 1-2 and on days 4-5. Increased expression of IL-1alpha mRNA was observed on days 1-2 and days 5-7. There was no clear relationship between HDC mRNA expression and cytokine/chemokine mRNA expression. Progesterone-stimulated intrauterine expression of HDC mRNA. Intrauterine cytokine/chemokine mRNA was also hormonally regulated. This data allowed the possibility that one or more of these pro-inflammatory cytokines could be involved in regulating intrauterine HDC mRNA production. Recombinant IL-1alpha, IL-1beta, MCP-1 and RANTES all failed to induce HDC mRNA expression in the preimplantation uterus in a mouse pseudopregnancy model. At the same time, IL-1beta induced the expression of mRNA for each of the four cytokines/chemokines. Despite the fact that these were also produced in the uterus during pregnancy and were hormonally regulated, none of these cytokines induced intrauterine HDC mRNA expression. The data suggest that progesterone is involved in the regulation of HDC mRNA expression in the preimplantation uterus, but IL-1alpha/beta, MCP-1 and RANTES, which have been reported to regulate histamine synthesis during inflammatory processes, do not appear to play a role.

Expression and regulation of chemokine genes in the mouse uterus during pregnancy.

Leukocytes accumulate in the pregnant mouse uterus following mating, during implantation and during placental development. Changes in leukocyte number are primarily due to recruitment from the blood, not local proliferation, but the underlying recruitment mechanisms are poorly understood. Mating-induced granulocyte and macrophage recruitment is due in part to pro-inflammatory and chemotactic factors present in seminal plasma. Accumulation of macrophages later in pregnancy appears to be caused in part by ovarian hormone-stimulated CSF-1 production and in part by other as yet unidentified uterine chemotactic factors. The current study was performed to assess chemokine production in the uterus during pregnancy. Northern blotting was used to demonstrate NSI/KC (KC), macrophage chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein one alpha (MIP1alpha) and regulated inactivation, normal T expressed and secreted protein (RANTES) mRNA in the uterus. Oestrogen and progesterone induced intrauterine production of all four chemokines and may have done so through the autocrine/paracrine activities of IL-1. The data suggest that C-C chemokines play a role in accumulation of macrophages in the uterus during pregnancy.

Selective chemokine mRNA expression following brain injury.

Injury in non-neuronal tissues stimulates chemokine expression leading to recruitment of inflammatory cells responsible for orchestration of repair processes. The signals involved in directing repair of damage to the brain are less well understood. We hypothesized that following brain injury, chemokines are expressed and regulate the rate and pattern of inflammatory cell accumulation. The two chemokine subfamilies are alpha(alpha)-chemokines, which primarily function as neutrophil chemoattractants, and the beta(beta)-chemokines, which function primarily as monocyte chemoattractants. We assessed alpha and beta chemokine mRNA expression patterns and leukocyte accumulation following a cerebral cortical lesion. Cortical lesions were produced with and without addition of endotoxin, Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which stimulates cytokine expression. We studied the expression of the beta-chemokines: monocyte chemoattractant protein (gene product JE; MCP-1/JE), macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha and beta (MIP-1alpha and MIP-1beta), and the regulated upon activation normal T expressed and secreted chemokine (RANTES) as well as the alpha-chemokines: interferon-gamma-inducible protein (IP-10) and N51/KC (KC; a murine homologue of MIP-2). Changes in gene expression were analyzed by Northern analysis at different time points following injury. Leukocyte and macrophage densities were analyzed by immunohistochemistry at the same time intervals. All chemokines were elevated following cortical injury/endotoxin. MCP-1 and MIP-1alpha were elevated at 2 h and peaked 6 h, MIP-1beta peaked at 6 h, but declined more rapidly than MCP-1 or MIP-1alpha, and IP-10 peaked at 6 h and showed the most rapid decline. KC was elevated at 1 h, and peaked at 6 h following LPS. RANTES was elevated at 1 h and achieved a plateau level between 6 and 18 h, then declined. In contrast, sterile injuries produced in the absence of endotoxin only induced the mRNA of the beta-chemokine MCP-1, and its expression was delayed compared to the cortical injury/endotoxin group. The presence of chemokine message as early as 1 h indicates that expression of this class of molecules is an early response in the repair process following traumatic brain injury. Macrophage/microglia accumulation occurred more rapidly, activated microglia further from the lesion border, and more cells accumulated in cortical injury/endotoxin than in cortical lesions produced under sterile conditions. Thus, there was a positive correlation between beta-chemokine expression and the number of beta-chemokine responsive cells (i.e. microglia) accumulating in injury sites. This is the first comprehensive study using a panel of chemokine probes and specific marcophage/microglial markers to study in vivo activation of the brain following injury. Our data show that the brain is capable of expression of multiple chemokine genes upon appropriate stimulation (e.g. LPS-treatment). The gradient of microglial activation is consistent with physical damage stimulating release of chemokines that diffuse from the injury site. These data strongly suggest that chemokines are instrumental in the initiation of repair processes following brain injury.

Secretion of cardiac plasminogen activator during hypoxia-induced right ventricular hypertrophy.

In the circulation, fibrinolytic activity is determined to a large degree by the relative levels of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and its major inhibitor (PAI-1). Vascular beds in different organs secrete tPA and PAI-1 into the circulation, and the total secretory rate of each protein is balanced by its half-life in the bloodstream. We are testing the hypothesis that in the heart, ventricular hypertrophy will alter the rates of formation of tPA and/or PAI-1 and the rates of their release into the cardiac vasculature. In this study, we have examined the effects of continuous hypoxia on PA activity in extracts of rat heart ventricles, on the activity secreted into the cardiac vasculature of perfused hearts, and on the levels of mRNAs for tPA and PAI-1. Rats were subjected to hypobaric hypoxia at 0.5 atm for 1-21 days. The treatment caused polycythemia within 1-3 days, and right ventricular hypertrophy by 3 days. PA activity in extracts of both right and left ventricles was significantly elevated after 3 days of hypoxia, continued to increase for 4 additional days, and remained elevated for 3 weeks. The actions of inhibitors of urokinase and tPA indicated that the PA activity in heart extracts was exclusively tPA. Fibrin zymography confirmed that result. The mRNAs for tPA and for PAI-1 were elevated after 1 day of hypoxia and then returned to near control levels on days 2 and 3. After 7 days, hearts from hypoxic rats secreted more tPA activity into perfusates than did hearts from controls. The difference in secretory rates was proportional to the differences in the levels of tPA in the corresponding heart extracts.

Transforming growth factor beta 1 and gamma interferon provide opposing signals to lipopolysaccharide-activated mouse macrophages.

Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are potent inducers of macrophage activation, leading to the production of a number of proinflammatory mediators. Although several cytokines that prime macrophages for enhanced LPS-triggered responses have been identified, far less is known regarding the role that cytokines play in down-regulating macrophage responses to LPS. This study was designed to determine the effects of recombinant transforming growth factor beta 1 (rTGF-beta 1) on macrophage activation by LPS. Pretreatment of either mouse peritoneal macrophages or cells of the RAW 264.7 macrophage-like cell line with rTGF-beta 1 inhibited their ability to produce both tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and nitric oxide (NO) in response to LPS. These inhibitory effects were reversed by increasing the concentration of LPS or by priming cells with optimal concentrations of recombinant gamma interferon (rIFN-gamma). Pretreatment of cells with rTGF-beta 1 had only a modest inhibitory effect on the expression of TNF-alpha mRNA. By contrast, the expression of mRNA for the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), which is responsible for NO production in activated macrophages, was significantly inhibited by rTGF-beta 1 pretreatment. Thus, rTGF-beta 1-dependent suppression of macrophage TNF-alpha biosynthesis was manifest at a posttranscriptional level, whereas the inhibition of NO production correlated with a direct effect on iNOS gene expression. Importantly, both of these suppressive effects of rTGF-beta 1 were reversed by exposing the cells to priming concentrations of rIFN-gamma. As with NO production, immunocytochemical analysis of iNOS expression in LPS-stimulated macrophages revealed that rIFN-gamma and rTGF-beta 1 had antagonistic effects, with the former increasing, and the latter reducing, the number of iNOS-expressing cells induced by LPS. These data suggest that a balance between the priming effects of IFN-gamma and the inhibitory effects of TGF-beta 1 can determine the overall level of macrophage activation induced by LPS.

Detection of HIV envelope specific antibodies by immunoelectron microscopy and correlation with antibody titer and virus neutralizing activity.

Human antisera positive for HIV were evaluated on HTLV-IIIB producing cells by two different immunoelectron microscopic (IEM) techniques. In preembedding immunoferritin IEM a heavy label was observed with early budding HIV. Under the same conditions cell released 'mature' particles were almost negative, which could be explained by the direct observation that most of the surface glycoprotein knobs are lost spontaneously during virus maturation. Using freshly infected cultures after agarose embedding, immunogold labelling of ultrathin cryosections allowed us to detect and differentiate internal core as well as virus envelope antigens. A good qualitative correlation between neutralization titers and IEM labelling intensity was observed. This type of immunocryoultramicrotomy appears to be useful for the detection of antigens in and on the virion. It might turn out valuable for the characterization of the env gp120 epitopes of HIV.

Fine structure of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and immunolocalization of structural proteins.

Ultrathin section and surface replica electron microscopy were applied in combination with immunoelectron microscopy to elucidate the fine structure of HIV. The shell of the tubular core shows p24 antigenicity, while p17 is located at the inner leaflet of the lipid membrane. The virus particle is studded with 70-80 protrusions. These knobs have a diameter of 15 nm, a height of 9 nm, and are probably arranged in a T = 7 I symmetry. The major envelope protein gp120 is spontaneously shed from the viral surface. A possible role of released gp120 in pathogenesis is discussed.