Direct Instruction of Absolute Pitch Using the Theremin as a Musical Instrument and Experimental Apparatus.

Direct Instruction (DI) is a method of education that has historically been applied to improve academic behaviors. Though DI has a modest history of teaching musical literacy skills, its application in teaching music performance skills has been limited. This article presents two methods derived from DI principles to teach the advanced musical skill of absolute pitch using the theremin as a unique musical instrument and experimental apparatus. The two methods are optimized for either fast learning of the new skill or assessment of the skill in a general sample of participants, and both are shown to significantly improve posttraining performance. Instructors recruited 53 college aged participants with a variety of music education histories across two studies (16 participants in Study 1; 37 participants in Study 2) for participation in either of the novel DI protocols for teaching absolute pitch using prompt fading. All participants showed significantly improved absolute pitch accuracy above baseline following 1 hr or less of DI with either method. Implications and suggestions for educators and researchers are discussed.

Motivating operations as contexts for operant discrimination training and testing.

Two groups of mice were exposed to stimulus discrimination training and testing under different motivational conditions to study interactions between motivating operations (MOs) during initial discrimination training and MOs when performance is tested following training. One group received all discrimination training sessions under 24-h food deprivation while the other received all sessions under 0-h food deprivation. The number of responses allowed during discrimination training sessions was limited such that the two groups experienced the same number of response-outcome contingencies. The groups then received two post-discrimination training tests: one conducted under 24-h food deprivation and the other conducted under 0-h food deprivation. Results indicated no difference between groups in terms of discrimination ratio. However, subjects trained under 24-h deprivation made more responses in the 24-h test, while subjects trained under 0-h deprivation made more responses in the 0-h test. These results are discussed in terms of motivational state-dependent learning.

Constructs, Events, and Acceptance and Commitment Training.

The present article considers acceptance and commitment training (ACT) from the perspective of interbehavioral psychology. Specifically, J. R. Kantor's (1957) explicit distinction between constructs and events is reviewed, with particular attention given to the use of ACT in the practice settings of applied behavior analysis. It is recommended that practitioners be especially sensitive to the distinction between constructs and events as they consider employing ACT interventions. The interbehavioral field construct of interbehavioral psychology is briefly described as a context for conceptualizing both practice and research related to ACT in behavior analysis. Related conceptual issues, especially issues pertaining to the subject matter of behavior analysis and the Skinnerian concept of private events, are considered. The potential value of further integrating interbehavioral thinking into ACT practice and research is described.

Relations between Description and Experimentation in the Metacontingency Enterprise: An Interbehavioral Analysis.

Despite extensive theoretical development, there is a lack of consensus in the metacontingency enterprise on the extent to which current metacontingency constructs describe experimental happenings. The purpose of this article is to provide an interbehavioral analysis of the metacontingency enterprise that examines relations between description and experimentation in order to facilitate research on cultural selection occurring through metacontingencies. In particular, this article considers how stimulus functions of descriptions of metacontingency constructs participate in metacontingency experiments in terms of specificity, types of analysis, levels of analysis, and procedures. The extent to which experimental findings are able to be described in terms of metacontingency constructs is assessed. Prominent events and relations demonstrated by metacontingency experiments are summarized and discussed, as well as inconsistencies between relations described and relations constructed based on events observed. Recommendations for experimental and descriptive adjustments are offered. Although this analysis may or may not have any bearing on the metacontingency enterprise, it may serve as a template for conducting interbehavioral analyses of activities in other enterprises, if not more analyses of the metacontingency enterprise.

Interpersonal closeness and conflict in interbehavioral perspective

This paper presents an interbehavioral conceptualization of interpersonal relationships, emphasizing both interpersonal closeness and conflict. In doing so, processes of association and subsequent substitution of stimulus function are described, setting the foundation for an analysis of how relationships are formed from an interbehavioral perspective. Specific attention is given to factors that impact intimacy and closeness in relationships, especially ways in which closeness may be fostered and conflict made more likely. The topic of communication is addressed, and possible therapeutic targets are highlighted from a novel conceptual context. The analysis is contrasted with more traditional ways of thinking, including more common behavior analytic perspectives. The implications of adopting the proposed interbehavioral conceptualization are provided

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Interactions between the effects of food and water motivating operations on food- and water-reinforced responding in mice.

Two experiments examined interactions between the effects of food and water motivating operations (MOs) on the food- and water-reinforced operant behavior of mice. In Experiment 1, mice responded for sucrose pellets and then water reinforcement under four different MOs: food deprivation, water deprivation, concurrent food and water deprivation, and no deprivation. The most responding for pellets occurred under food deprivation and the most responding for water occurred under water deprivation. Concurrent food and water deprivation decreased responding for both reinforcers. Nevertheless, water deprivation alone increased pellet-reinforced responding and food deprivation alone likewise increased water-reinforced responding relative to no deprivation. Experiment 2 demonstrated that presession food during concurrent food and water deprivation increased in-session responding for water relative to sessions where no presession food was provided. Conversely, presession water during concurrent food and water deprivation did not increase in-session responding for pellets. These results suggest that a) the reinforcing value of a single stimulus can be affected by multiple MOs, b) a single MO can affect the reinforcing value of multiple stimuli, and c) reinforcing events can also function as MOs. We consider implications for theory and practice and suggest strategies for further basic research on MOs.

Interbehavioral psychology and the behavior systems framework: A brief reply.

The present commentary considers a paper by Silva, Silva, and Machado (2019) published in this special issue, which describes some relations between Behavior Systems Theory and Interbehavioral Psychology. In particular, the systems aspects, field orientation, and role of experimentation in both Behavior Systems Theory and Interbehavioral Psychology are discussed. Similarities and differences among the two perspectives are highlighted, and misconceptions about Interbehavioral Psychology are addressed.

The Will to Fight: Aversion-Induced Aggression and the Role of Motivation in Intergroup Conflicts.

Aggressive behavior is a source of many significant human problems, most notably the catastrophic loss of life and resources that can result from violent conflicts between groups. Aggressive behavior is particularly likely to arise from aversive conditions that function as motivating operations (MOs) that establish the stimulation produced by aggressive acts as reinforcing. We describe the behavior that arises from these circumstances as aversion-induced aggression (AIA) and argue that the MOs associated with AIA are important factors in initiating and sustaining violent conflicts between groups. In support of this, we survey the basic nonhuman research that has demonstrated the aggression-motivating functions of aversive stimuli. We extend our analysis of AIA to humans and describe how the special properties of verbal stimuli serve as the basis for notable differences between AIA in humans and nonhumans. We describe how aversive conditions may be exploited by leaders to establish support for aggression against another group in the pursuit of their objectives. We suggest that conflicts between groups cannot be resolved in the long term unless the motivational conditions from which conflicts arise are alleviated. Aggression is rarely effective in this regard because it exacerbates these conditions. For this reason, we advocate against the use of aggression as a tool for resolving conflicts between groups and consider how behavior science may contribute to the development and evaluation of alternative nonviolent practices.

Predicting the Effects of Interventions: A Tutorial on the Disequilibrium Model.

The disequilibrium approach to reinforcement and punishment, derived from the probability-differential hypothesis and response deprivation hypothesis, provides a number of potentially useful mathematical models for practitioners. The disequilibrium approach and its accompanying models have proven effective in the prediction and control of behavior, yet they have not been fully espoused and integrated into clinical practice. The purpose of this tutorial is to detail the disequilibrium approach and adapt its mathematical models for use as a tool in applied settings. The disequilibrium models specify how to arrange contingencies and predict the effects of those contingencies. We aggregate these models, and provide them as a single tool, in the form of a Microsoft Excel® spreadsheet that calculates the direction and magnitude of behavior change based on baseline measures and a practitioner's choice of intervention parameters. How practitioners take baseline measures and select intervention parameters in accordance with disequilibrium models is explicated. The proposed tool can be accessed and downloaded for use at https://osf.io/knf7x/.

Evaluation of the behavioral characteristics of the mdx mouse model of duchenne muscular dystrophy through operant conditioning procedures.

The mdx mouse is an important nonhuman model for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) research. Characterizing the behavioral traits of the strain relative to congenic wild-type (WT) mice may enhance our understanding of the cognitive deficits observed in some humans with DMD and contribute to treatment development and evaluation. In this paper we report the results of a number of experiments comparing the behavior of mdx to WT mice in operant conditioning procedures designed to assess learning and memory. We found that mdx outperformed WT in all learning and memory tasks involving food reinforcement, and this appeared to be related to the differential effects of the food deprivation motivating operation on mdx mice. Conversely, WT outperformed mdx in an escape/avoidance learning task. These results suggest motivational differences between the strains and demonstrate the potential utility of operant conditioning procedures in the assessment of the behavioral characteristics of the mdx mouse.

The Origin and Evolution of the Behavior Analysis Program at the University of Nevada, Reno.

The origins of the Behavior Analysis program at the University of Nevada, Reno by way of a self-capitalized model through its transition to a more typical graduate program is described. Details of the original proposal to establish the program and the funding model are described. Some of the unusual features of the program executed in this way are discussed, along with problems engendered by the model. Also included is the diversification of faculty interests over time. The status of the program, now, after 25 years of operation, is presented.

The effect of the magnitude of the food deprivation motivating operation on free operant preference in mice.

A number of recent studies have demonstrated that organisms prefer stimuli correlated with food under high deprivation conditions over stimuli correlated with food under low deprivation conditions. The purpose of the present study was to extend the literature on this phenomenon by testing for preference under extinction conditions, testing for preference at baseline, employing a free operant preference test, and using mice as subjects. Our results appear to support the existing literature in that most subjects preferred a stimulus correlated with food under high deprivation conditions in the post-training preference test. We provide an analysis of this phenomenon based on the concept of the motivating operation (MO) and discuss how this analysis suggests a number of avenues for further research on this topic.

A Historical Perspective on the Future of Behavior Science.

Like all natural sciences, behavior science has much to offer toward an understanding of the world. The extent to which the promise of behavior science is realized, though, depends upon the extent to which we keep what we know before us. This paper considers fundamental concepts in behavior science, including the concepts of behavior, stimulation, setting conditions, and language. In considering these concepts, we revisit comments from B. F. Skinner and J. R. Kantor and also consider some areas of behavior analytic research and the implications they have for reconsidering long-held assumptions about the analysis of behavior. We hope that, in considering our foundations, the vitality and strength of the discipline might be enhanced, our impact on science improved, and our future secured.

Interdisciplinary research on autism: Behavioral measures in the development of a mouse model of autism / Medidas comportamentales para un modelo de autismo en ratones

A great deal of biomedical research has provided experimental evidence of the function of specific neuropeptides in the development of autistic symptomatology. Interdisciplinary research in this area would provide a more comprehensive understanding of autism by integrating the findings and contributions from both behavior analysis and biology. In this preliminary interdisciplinary study, pregnant mice were injected with lipopolysaccharide - LPS (experimental group) on the 17th day of gestation and their litters were compared to the litters of mice that were not injected. Measures of social interaction were taken in two periods, namely when the pups were juveniles and when they were young adults, using an ABAB design consisting on the presence/absence of the mother in the chamber. The social interaction of each pup was assessed by observing the number of approaches it made towards its mother. Average velocity, calculated as distance traveled over time, for each mouse during the session was also collected. It was concluded that further refinement of the measure of social interaction was needed, and that a measure of behavioral development may prove useful in the construction of a mouse model of autism.

Un gran número de investigación biomédica ha reportado evidencia empírica respecto a la función de neuropéptidos específicos en el desarrollo de la sintomatología del autismo. Se sugiere que con el fin de obtener una mayor comprensión del autismo es necesario establecer un campo de investigación interdisciplinario en el cual es integren contribuciones tanto del Análisis Comportamental como de la Biología. En este estudio interdisciplinario preliminar, ratonas gestantes fueron inyectadas con lipopolisacárido - LPS (grupo experimental) en el 17avo día de gestación. Las camadas de estas ratonas fueron comparadas con camadas control que no fueron inyectadas. Las mediciones de interacción social se realizaron en dos periodos, juvenil y adulto joven, utilizando un diseño ABAB que consistió en la presencia o ausencia de la madre en la cámara experimental. La interacción social de cada cría se evaluó observando el número de acercamientos hacia la madre. El promedio de velocidad, entendida como distancia recorrida sobre tiempo, de cada ratón también fue calculado para cada sesión. Se concluye que es necesario un mayor refinamiento de la medida de interacción social utilizada, y que la introducción de una medida de desarrollo comportamental sería útil en la construcción de un modelo animal de autismo.

Understanding observational learning: an interbehavioral approach.

Observational learning is an important area in the field of psychology and behavior science more generally. Given this, it is essential that behavior analysts articulate a sound theory of how behavior change occurs through observation. This paper begins with an overview of seminal research in the area of observational learning, followed by a consideration of common behavior analytic conceptualizations of these findings. The interbehavioral perspective is then outlined, shedding light on some difficulties with the existing behavior analytic approaches. The implications of embracing the interbehavioral perspective for understanding the most complex sorts of behavior, including those involved in observational learning are considered.

Backward conditioning of tumor necrosis factor-α in a single trial: changing intervals between exposures to lipopolysaccharide and saccharin taste.

The current study examined the effect of backward conditioning with three different time intervals between exposures to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as the unconditioned stimulus (US) and saccharin taste in water as the potential conditioned stimulus (CS). Forty-eight naïve female BALB/c mice at three months of age served as subjects, divided into six groups. Four groups were assigned to Experiment 1 for the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) measure, and the remaining two groups were used in Experiment 2 to measure taste aversion behavior. Both experiments employed a single trial. The timing of introduction to the saccharin taste varied between 3 min, 7 h, and 24 h following an LPS injection in Experiment 1. Experiment 2 employed the three-minute interval only. These intervals correspond to distinct immunological, physiological, and behavioral events induced by LPS. On the day after re-exposure to the saccharin taste, the TNF-α groups were challenged with LPS to test the LPS tolerance response. While backward conditioning of taste aversion behavior was not observed, some evidence of conditioned TNF-α response and subsequent development of LPS tolerance was observed with backward conditioning in a single trial. This exploratory study demonstrated that the effect of backward conditioning on conditioned TNF-α response and LPS tolerance response in a single trial depended on the timing of when a CS is presented after LPS exposure.

Video imaging system for automated shaping and analysis of complex locomotory behavior.

Although many observational technologies have been developed for the study of behavior, most of these technologies have suffered from the inability to engender highly reproducible behaviors that can be observed and modified. We have developed ACROBAT (Automated Control in Real-Time of Operant Behavior and Training), a video imaging system and associated computer algorithms that allow the fully automated shaping and analysis of complex locomotory behaviors. While this operant conditioning system is particularly useful for measuring the acquisition and maintenance of complex topographies, it also provides a more general and user friendly platform on which to develop novel paradigms for the study of learning and memory in animals. In this paper we describe the instrumentation and software developed, demonstrate the use of ACROBAT to shape a specific topography, and show how the system can be used to facilitate the study of arthritic pain in mice.

Invited commentary on animal models in psychiatry: animal models of non-conventional human behavior.

Conventional behavior, of which linguistic behavior is the principal variety, is identified as responses having formal properties that are not determined by the natural properties of stimulus objects, but instead by properties attributed to those objects under the auspices of particular groups. Given the ubiquity of this type of behavior in the repertoires of human beings and its complete absence in those of non-humans, the argument is made that animal models of human disorders, in which disturbances of conventional behaviors constitute defining features, are not sufficiently analogous to these conditions in humans to be pursued with good result. Because conventional behavior of the linguistic type is ubiquitous in the repertoires of normally developed human adults, it is suggested that the behavior of pre-verbal infants and/or non-verbal persons is preferable to that of adults as the phenomenal source for the construction of animal models of human psychological events. The observation and measurement of psychological events is held to be complicated by a number of their characteristics, including their complexity by virtue of whole organism participation, their essential complementarily with stimulus events, and the corrigibility of both form and function over their repeated occurrences, among others. The implications of these features for modeling enterprises are discussed.