Beneficial microvascular and anti-inflammatory effects of pravastatin during sepsis involve nitric oxide synthase III.

BACKGROUND: Sepsis induces microvascular inflammation and production of the vasodilator nitric oxide (NO) via endothelial and inducible nitric oxide synthase (eNOS or NOS III and iNOS or NOS II). Statins are cholesterol-lowering drugs; however, they also attenuate inflammation. This study aimed to determine whether pravastatin protected against sepsis-induced hypotension, loss of vascular tone, and microvascular inflammation via NOS pathways. METHODS: Male Wistar rats (n=18) were anaesthetized and the mesentery prepared for fluorescent intravital microscopy. Animals received either lipopolysaccharide (LPS; n=6); LPS+pravastatin (18 and 3 h before LPS; n=6), or saline as a control, for 4 h. RESULTS: Mean arterial pressure decreased in LPS-treated animals (P<0.05), but not in those also receiving pravastatin. Acetylcholine-induced relaxation of venules was abolished by LPS but improved by pravastatin. Pravastatin also reduced the increase in nitrite concentration and macromolecular leak from venules induced by LPS (P<0.05). The increased leucocyte adhesion seen in LPS-treated rats was also reduced in those also treated with pravastatin. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that pravastatin increased endothelial cell expression of NOS III during sepsis, but had no effect on LPS-induced up-regulation of NOS II. CONCLUSIONS: Pravastatin improved NOS III-mediated vessel relaxation and exerted anti-inflammatory effects within the microcirculation after LPS administration in rats. Pravastatin therefore appears to have beneficial effects during sepsis, as a result of increased microvascular expression and function of NOS III.

A novel method for isolation of neutrophils from murine blood using negative immunomagnetic separation.

Inappropriate neutrophil activation has been implicated in the pathology of several clinically important inflammatory conditions. Although murine models are extensively used in the investigation of such pathological processes, a reliable method by which viable, quiescent neutrophils can be isolated from murine blood has not been developed. Here we describe a novel method based on negative immunomagnetic separation, which yields highly pure populations of murine neutrophils. Blood is incubated with a cocktail of antibodies against specific cell markers on unwanted cells, and then with secondary antibody-coated magnetic beads. After running the preparation through a column within a magnetic field, labeled cells are retained, and a neutrophil-rich effluent is collected. This method yields a >95% pure suspension of >97% viable neutrophils, recovering approximately 70% of neutrophils from whole blood. Flow cytometric analysis shows little difference in surface L-selectin and CD18 expression on isolated neutrophils compared with neutrophils in whole blood, indicating that neutrophils are minimally activated bythe isolation process. Stimulation with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) reduced L-selectin andincreased CD18 expression. Isolated neutrophilsmigrate under agarose in response to fMLP, and fluorescently labeled neutrophils transfused into recipient mice interact with postcapillary venules in a manner comparable to endogenous leukocytes. These findings show that neutrophils isolated using this method can be used for inflammatory studies in vitro and in vivo.

Dominant role of L- and P-selectin in mediating CXC chemokine-induced neutrophil migration in vivo.

The role of selectins in neutrophil emigration in response to the CXC chemokines KC and MIP-2 was investigated in wild type and P-selectin deficient mice. Intrapleural injection of KC or MIP-2 induced a rapid and specific neutrophil accumulation. Emigration 2 h after KC or MIP-2 was reduced 83 - 88% by anti-L-selectin mAb and 53 - 63% by anti-P-selectin mAb. Co-administration of anti-L- and P-selectin mAbs abolished neutrophil migration induced by either chemokine. An anti-E-selectin mAb tested alone did not affect KC-induced neutrophil migration after 2 or 4 h. Moreover, anti-E-selectin did not have an additive inhibitory effect on KC-induced neutrophil migration compared with P-selectin blockade alone. This was found when neutrophil migration was measured at 2 and 4 h after KC. Despite a blood neutrophilia, neutrophil migration at 2 and 4 h after KC was markedly smaller (by approximately 90%) in P-selectin deficient mice compared with wild type animals. Responses at both time points were not decreased further in animals given E-selectin mAb but were reduced to the PBS control level in the presence of anti-L-selectin. In vitro study of cultured murine endothelial cells demonstrated that KC can directly increase cell surface P-selectin expression. These data suggest that CXC chemokine-induced neutrophil accumulation is dependent on both neutrophil L-selectin and a rapid upregulation of endothelial P-selectin but there is no evidence for E-selectin induction.

Eosinophil recruitment into sites of delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions in mice.

The selective accumulation of eosinophils in tissue is a characteristic feature of allergic diseases where there is a predominance of lymphocytes expressing a Th2 phenotype. In an attempt to define factors determining specific eosinophil accumulation in vivo, we have used a radiolabeled technique to assess the occurrence and the mechanisms underlying (111)In-eosinophil recruitment into Th1- and Th2-predominant, delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reactions. Eosinophils were purified from the blood of IL-5 transgenic mice, labeled with (111)In and injected into nontransgenic CBA/Ca mice. Th1- and Th2-predominant, DTH reactions were induced in mice by immunization with methylated bovine serum albumin (MBSA) in Freund's complete adjuvant or with Schistosoma mansoni eggs, respectively. In these animals, (111)In-eosinophils were recruited in skin sites in an antigen-, time-, and concentration-dependent manner. Depletion of CD4+ lymphocytes abrogated (111)In-eosinophil recruitment in both reactions. Pretreatment of animals with anti-IFN-gamma mAb abrogated (111)In-eosinophil recruitment in MBSA-immunized and -challenged animals, whereas anti-IL-4 inhibited (111)In-eosinophil recruitment in both models. Local pretreatment with an anti-eotaxin polyclonal antibody inhibited the MBSA and SEA reactions by 51% and 39%, respectively. These results demonstrate that, although eosinophilia is not a feature of Th1-predominant, DTH reactions, these reactions produce the necessary chemoattractants and express the necessary cell adhesion molecules for eosinophil migration. The control of the circulating levels of eosinophils appears to be a most important strategy in determining tissue eosinophilia.

Differential effects of CD18, CD29, and CD49 integrin subunit inhibition on neutrophil migration in pulmonary inflammation.

Neutrophil migration to lung alveoli is a characteristic of lung diseases and is thought to occur primarily via capillaries rather than postcapillary venules. The role of adhesion molecules CD18 and CD29 on this migration in a mouse model of lung inflammation has been investigated. The number of neutrophils present in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was determined 4 h after intratracheal instillation of LPS (0.1-1 microg) or murine recombinant KC (CXC chemokine, 0.03-0.3 microg). Both stimuli produced a dose-related increase in neutrophil accumulation. Intravenous anti-mouse CD18 mAb, 2E6 (0.5 mg/mouse), significantly (p < 0.001) attenuated LPS (0.3 microg)- but not KC (0.3 microg)-induced neutrophil accumulation. The anti-mouse CD29 mAb, HM beta 1-1 (0.02 mg/mouse), significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited both LPS (0.3 microg)- and KC (0.3 microg)-induced neutrophil migration. A second mAb to CD18 (GAME-46) and both F(ab')(2) and Fab of HM beta 1-1 produced similar results to those above, while coadministration of mAbs did not result in greater inhibition. Electron microscopy studies showed that CD29 was involved in the movement of neutrophils from the interstitium into alveoli. The effect of mAbs to CD49 (alpha integrin) subunits of CD29 was also examined. mAbs to CD49e and CD49f inhibited both responses, while anti-CD49b and CD49d significantly inhibited responses to KC only. These data suggest that CD29 plays a critical role in neutrophil migration in pulmonary inflammation and that CD49b and CD49d mediate CD18-independent neutrophil accumulation.

alpha(4) integrin-dependent eosinophil recruitment in allergic but not non-allergic inflammation.

1. Although anti-alpha(4) integrin mAbs reduce eosinophil accumulation in several models of allergic inflammation, it is not clear whether this occurs via a direct action to block eosinophil alpha(4) integrins or indirectly on another cell type. The role of alpha(4) integrins on the accumulation of (111)In-labelled eosinophils in allergic and non-allergic inflammation in guinea-pig skin was therefore investigated. 2. Intradermal injection of antigen in sensitized skin sites induced accumulation of (111)In-eosinophils that was reduced up to 70% by two anti-alpha(4) integrin mAbs. In contrast, accumulation of (111)In-eosinophils to intradermal chemoattractants was unaffected by the same mAbs. 3. Accumulation of (111)In-eosinophils in allergic and non-allergic conditions was partly inhibited by a low dose of an anti-beta(2) integrin mAb. In combination with anti-alpha(4) integrin mAb, responses were not further reduced suggesting that these adhesion pathways are not additive or synergic. 4. Pretreating skin sites with antiserum or contaminating LPS did not reveal an alpha(4) integrin dependent pathway for chemoattractant-induced (111)In-eosinophil accumulation. These data suggest that alpha(4) integrins are involved in the response to antigen in sensitized skin sites. 5. Pretreating (111)In-eosinophil with alpha(4) integrin mAb blocked their adhesion to fibronectin in vitro but did not inhibit their accumulation in allergic inflammation suggesting that the blocking effect in vivo was eosinophil independent. 6. These data support the concept that targeting alpha(4) integrins on cells other than eosinophils could control eosinophil accumulation and have therapeutic potential in allergic diseases such as asthma and atopic dermatitis.

P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 supports rolling on E- and P-selectin in vivo.

Selectin-dependent rolling is the earliest observable event in the recruitment of leukocytes to inflamed tissues. Several glycoproteins decorated with sialic acid, fucose, and/or sulfate have been shown to bind the selectins. The best-characterized selectin ligand is P-selectin glycoprotein-1 (PSGL-1) that supports P-selectin- dependent rolling in vitro and in vivo. In vitro studies have suggested that PSGL-1 may also be a ligand for E- and L-selectins. To study the in vivo function of PSGL-1, without the influence of other leukocyte proteins, the authors observed the interaction of PSGL-1-coated microspheres in mouse venules stimulated to express P- and/or E-selectin. Microspheres coated with functional recombinant PSGL-1 rolled in surgically stimulated and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha)-stimulated mouse venules. P-selectin deficiency or inhibition abolished microsphere rolling in surgically and TNFalpha-stimulated venules, whereas E-selectin deficiency or inhibition increased microsphere rolling velocity in TNFalpha-stimulated venules. The results suggest that P-selectin-PSGL-1 interaction alone is sufficient to mediate rolling in vivo and that E-selectin-PSGL-1 interaction supports slow rolling.

7-Methoxybenzofuran-4-carboxamides as PDE 4 inhibitors: a potential treatment for asthma.

The synthesis and pharmacological profile of a novel series of 7-methoxybenzofuran-4-carboxamides is described. Some of these compounds were found to be potent inhibitors of phosphodiesterase type 4 (PDE4).

Role of arachidonic acid in leukotriene B(4)-induced guinea-pig eosinophil homotypic aggregation.

The activation of eosinophils with the lipid mediator, leukotriene B(4), induces their homotypic aggregation. Upon activation with leukotriene B(4), eosinophils release a significant amount of arachidonic acid, a process dependent on the activation of phospholipase A(2). Here, we have evaluated whether arachidonic acid could induce aggregation of eosinophils and whether the release of arachidonic acid mediated the aggregation induced by leukotriene B(4). The exogenous administration of arachidonic acid induced a concentration-dependent eosinophil homotypic aggregation. Pretreatment of eosinophils with a 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor or a leukotriene B(4) receptor antagonist abrogated arachidonic-acid-induced aggregation. Arachidonic acid induced a significant increase in leukotriene B(4) levels and desensitised leukotriene B(4)-induced aggregation in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, this desensitisation was effectively reversed by a 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor. However, arachidonic acid failed to induce a rise in intracellular Ca(2+) in eosinophils and failed to desensitise these cells to rises in intracellular Ca(2+) induced by leukotriene B(4). Pretreatment of eosinophils with the phospholipase A(2) inhibitor, mepacrine, inhibited the aggregation responses induced by 1 nM leukotriene B(4) by approximately 50% but had no significant effect on the other concentrations of leukotriene B(4) tested (0.1 to 100 nM). In conclusion, arachidonic acid stimulates eosinophil aggregation indirectly via the release of leukotriene B(4). Although a significant amount of arachidonic acid is released in response to activation of eosinophils with leukotriene B(4), the arachidonic acid released does appear to play a major role in mediating leukotriene B(4)-induced eosinophil aggregation.

'Outside-in' signalling mechanisms underlying CD11b/CD18-mediated NADPH oxidase activation in human adherent blood eosinophils.

1 Incubation of human eosinophils in BSA-coated tissue culture plates resulted in time-dependent adhesion and attendant activation of the NADPH oxidase that were both inhibited (by >85%) by blocking antibodies raised against CD11b and CD18. 2 SB 203580, an inhibitor of p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, did not influence adhesion but inhibited superoxide anion generation (pIC50=-6.57). 3 PP1, an inhibitor of the src-family of protein tyrosine kinases, inhibited adhesion and CD11b/CD18-mediated superoxide anion generation with similar potencies (pEC50s=-5.53 and -5.99 respectively) suggesting that inhibition of the NADPH oxidase was a direct consequence of blocking adhesion. 4 The protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors Ro-31 8220 (broad spectrum inhibitor), GF 109203X (inhibitor of conventional and novel isoforms) and Gö 6976 (inhibitor of conventional isoforms) suppressed adhesion-dependent NADPH oxidase activation (pIC50s=-6.61, -6.05 and -4.89 respectively) without affecting adhesion. Based upon the selectivity of these drugs PKCdelta and PKCepsilon are implicated in the suppression of oxidant production. 5 Wortmannin, an inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PtdIns 3-kinase), abolished superoxide anion production in adherent eosinophils (pEC50=-9.06). Similarly, CD11b/CD18-dependent adhesion was suppressed with the same potency (pEC50=-9.29) although the maximum effect did not exceed 50% implying that wortmannin also had an affect on those processes that govern adhesion-driven oxidase activation. 6 PD 098059 and piceatannol, inhibitors of MAP kinase kinase-1 and the syk tyrosine kinase respectively, had no effect on CD11b/CD18-mediated adhesion or NADPH oxidase activation. 7 The results of this study demonstrate that human eosinophils adhere to BSA-coated plastic by a CD11b/CD18-dependent mechanism, which is responsible for activation of the NADPH oxidase. Although the signalling pathway(s) utilized by CD11b/CD18 is still to be elucidated, the data presented herein implicate p38 MAP kinase, novel PKCs and PtdIns 3-kinase.

Lipoteichoic acid inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced adhesion molecule expression and IL-8 release in human lung microvascular endothelial cells.

Cell adhesion molecule expression (CAM) and IL-8 release in lung microvascular endothelium facilitate neutrophil accumulation in the lung. This study investigated the effects of lipoteichoic acid (LTA), a cell wall component of Gram-positive bacteria, alone and with LPS or TNF-alpha, on CAM expression and IL-8 release in human lung microvascular endothelial cells (HLMVEC). The concentration-dependent effects of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) LTA (0.3-30 microg/ml) on ICAM-1 and E-selectin expression and IL-8 release were bell shaped. Streptococcus pyogenes (S. pyogenes) LTA had no effect on CAM expression, but caused a concentration-dependent increase in IL-8 release. S. aureus and S. pyogenes LTA (30 microg/ml) abolished LPS-induced CAM expression, and S. aureus LTA reduced LPS-induced IL-8 release. In contrast, the effects of S. aureus LTA with TNF-alpha on CAM expression and IL-8 release were additive. Inhibitory effects of LTA were not due to decreased HLMVEC viability, as assessed by ethidium homodimer-1 uptake. Changes in neutrophil adhesion to HLMVEC paralleled changes in CAM expression. Using RT-PCR to assess mRNA levels, S. aureus LTA (3 microg/ml) caused a protein synthesis-dependent reduction (75%) in LPS-induced IL-8 mRNA and decreased the IL-8 mRNA half-life from >6 h with LPS to approximately 2 h. These results suggest that mechanisms exist to prevent excessive endothelial cell activation in the presence of high concentrations of bacterial products. However, inhibition of HLMVEC CAM expression and IL-8 release ultimately may contribute to decreased neutrophil accumulation, persistence of bacteria in the lung, and increased severity of infection.

Cytokine-induced airway epithelial ICAM-1 upregulation: quantification by high-resolution scanning and transmission electron microscopy.

The aim of this study was to investigate the variation of intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 which occurs between individual airway epithelial cells of distinct phenotype. 16HBE14o- (16HBE) and BEAS-2B cell lines and human airway explants were cultured with medium alone or a mixture of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha (10 ng x mL(-1)) and interferon (IFN)-gamma (40 ng x mL(-1)) before being immunogold-labelled and examined quantitatively using sensitive high-resolution electron microscopic techniques. By enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay there was a 1.6-fold increase of ICAM-1 in the BEAS-2B cells following the cytokine mix which was not apparent in the 16HBE cells. However, high-resolution scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that an upregulation had occurred; median and ranges for gold particle number per 10 microm2 cell surface were: 7.9 (0-40) for nonstimulated and 19.1 (0-60 for stimulated) (p<0.01, Mann-Whitney U-test). The value for the nonstimulated BEAS-2B cells was 24.2 (0-60), 3-times higher that the constitutive expression in the 16HBE cells (p<0.01), whereas following stimulation, it was 68.5 (20-130) (p<0.01). Values for explant epithelial outgrowths were similar to the 16HBE cells. Immunohistochemistry of the explanted mucosa showed both constitutive and upregulated expression of epithelial ICAM-1 associated with basal and indeterminate cells rather than with ciliated or goblet cells. These results using high-resolution techniques indicate that there is marked cell-to-cell variation in cellular adhesion molecule expression and that it is the basal cells and less well differentiated (indeterminate) epithelial cells which are likely to play key roles in leukocyte retention via intercellular adhesion molecule-1.

A comparison of the inhibitory activity of PDE4 inhibitors on leukocyte PDE4 activity in vitro and eosinophil trafficking in vivo.

1. Phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4 inhibitors have been shown to inhibit eosinophil PDE4 activity in vitro and accumulation of eosinophils in experimental airways inflammation. However, direct effects on eosinophil trafficking have not been studied in detail and it is not known if activity in vitro translates into efficacy in vivo. In the present study, we compared the activity of five PDE4 inhibitors in vitro and against trafficking of (111)In-eosinophils in cutaneous inflammation in the guinea-pig. 2. The rank order of potency for inhibition of PDE4 activity in guinea-pig eosinophil, neutrophil and macrophage, and human neutrophil lysates was RP73401 > SB207499 >CDP840 > rolipram > LAS31025. On TNFalpha production by human PBMC, all inhibitors with the exception of rolipram showed potency similar to their effect on neutrophil lysates. 3. In a brain cerebellum binding assay, the rank order of potency at displacing [3H]-rolipram was RP73401 > rolipram > SB207499 > CDP840 > LAS30125. 4. Trafficking of (111)In-eosinophils to skin sites injected with PAF, ZAP or antigen in sensitized sites was inhibited by oral administration of all PDE4 inhibitors. The rank order of potency was RP73401 = rolipram > LAS31025 > SB207499 > CDP840. 5. With the exception was RP73401, which was the most potent compound in all assays, there was no clear relationship between activity of PDE4 inhibitors in vitro and capacity to inhibit eosinophil trafficking in vivo. Thus, we conclude that in vitro activity of PDE4 inhibitors does not predict in vivo efficacy in an experimental model of eosinophil trafficking.

alpha4 integrin-dependent eotaxin induction of bronchial hyperresponsiveness and eosinophil migration in interleukin-5 transgenic mice.

We investigated the roles of eosinophil infiltration and activation induced by the eosinophil-selective chemokine eotaxin, and of the expression of eosinophil alpha4 and beta2 integrins in causing bronchial hyperresponsiveness (BHR) in interleukin (IL)-5 CBA/Ca transgenic mice. These mice did not show BHR, despite the presence of some eosinophils in the lungs. Intratracheal mouse recombinant eotaxin (3 micrograms) did not induce BHR in wild-type mice. In IL-5 transgenic mice, eotaxin (3 and 5 micrograms) increased responsiveness at 24 h and increased eosinophils in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid by 9.4- and 14-fold by 24 h, respectively, together with augmentation of eosinophil peroxidase activity and eosinophil infiltration in the airway submucosa. Using flow cytometry, the expression of alpha4, CD11b, and CD18 was upregulated in BAL, but not in blood, eosinophils. A rat anti-alpha4 antibody inhibited eotaxin-induced BHR and eosinophil migration and activation, but an anti-CD11b antibody had no significant effects on BHR. A combination of both antibodies was more effective. IL-5 and eotaxin synergize in the induction of BHR and airway eosinophilia, effects that are dependent on the induction of eosinophil alpha4 integrin. Expression of BHR depends on the recruitment and activation of eosinophils.

Cytokines and neurohormones relating to body composition alterations in the wasting syndrome of chronic heart failure.

BACKGROUND: Chronic heart failure is one of a number of disorders associated with the development of a wasting syndrome. The precise mechanisms of this remain unknown, but previous studies have suggested a role for immune and neurohormonal factors. METHODS: We aimed to investigate in detail the differences in body composition (dual X-ray absorptiometry) and the relationship to candidate biochemical factors of the immune, neurohormonal and metabolic systems in 15 healthy controls, 36 stable non-cachectic and 18 cachectic patients with chronic heart failure. RESULTS: Non-cachectic patients showed reduced leg lean tissue (-9.1%, P<0.01) compared to controls. Cachectic patients had significantly reduced lean (-21.0% vs controls, -19.9% vs non-cachectics), fat (-33.0% vs controls, -37. 0% vs non-cachectics) and bone tissue (-17.5% vs controls, -15.9% vs non-cachectics) (all P<0.0001). Cachectic patients showed a significantly increased cortisol/dehydroepiandrosterone ratio (+203% vs controls, P<0.0001; +89% vs non-cachectics, P=0.0011) and increased cytokine levels (TNF-alpha, soluble TNF-receptor 1, interleukin-6). The levels of catabolic hormones and cytokines correlated significantly with reduced muscle and fat tissue content and reduced bone mass. CONCLUSION: Peripheral loss of muscle tissue is a general finding in chronic heart failure. The wasting in cardiac cachexia affects all tissue compartments and is significantly related to neurohormonal and immunological abnormalities.

Loss of bone mineral in patients with cachexia due to chronic heart failure.

We studied body composition and cytokine levels in 58 patients with heart failure and 16 control patients using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Bone mineral content and density, and lean and fat tissue content, were reduced in cachectic compared with noncachectic patients and control subjects, with negative relations between indexes of bone composition and tumor necrosis factor and tumor necrosis factor receptor 1.

Priming and induction of eosinophil trafficking in guinea-pig cutaneous inflammation by tumour necrosis factor alpha.

Tissue eosinophilia is a hallmark of allergic and parasitic diseases. Priming mechanisms may play an important role in mediating the process of eosinophil accumulation in these conditions. We have previously shown that blockade of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) inhibited the capacity of lipopolysaccharide to prime skin sites for chemoattractant-induced eosinophil recruitment. The present study was carried out to investigate the capacity of TNFalpha to prime an inflammatory site for enhanced eosinophil accumulation. Initial experiments investigated the capacity of TNFalpha itself to induce eosinophil accumulation. Intradermal injection of murine TNFalpha (10-300 ng per site) in the guinea-pig induced significant accumulation of 111In-eosinophils. Kinetic studies showed the response to be delayed in onset and inhibited by cycloheximide, consistent with a dependency on protein synthesis. Trafficking of 111In-eosinophils to sites treated for 2 h with TNFalpha (10-100 ng per site) was inhibited by monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against beta2 or alpha4 integrins. Intradermal injection of a low dose (3 ng) of TNFalpha (which by itself had no significant effect on eosinophil trafficking) prior to chemoattractants or antigen in sensitized skin sites, induced significant priming of eosinophil accumulation. Recruitment of both 111In-eosinophils and endogenous eosinophils was enhanced. Trafficking to TNFalpha-primed responses was dependent on protein synthesis and beta2 integrins. In contrast, the alpha4 integrin mAb failed to inhibit the TNFalpha primed response. Thus, TNFalpha can induce and also prime eosinophil recruitment in guinea-pig skin. Our results provide further evidence that this cytokine may be an important mediator of allergic- or parasite-induced eosinophilic inflammation.

Role of the mitogen-activated protein kinases and tyrosine kinases during leukotriene B4-induced eosinophil activation.

Exposure of guinea-pig eosinophils to leukotriene B4 (LTB4; 1 microM) resulted in a rapid generation of H2O2 (index of NADPH oxidase activation), stimulated [3H]arachidonic acid (AA) release (index of phospholipase A2 activity), and promoted CD18-dependent homotypic aggregation. Under similar conditions, LTB4 (1 microM) induced a rapid activation of extracellular-regulated kinases-1 and 2 (ERK-1/2) but not c-jun N-terminal kinases 46 and 54 (JNK-46/54) or p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAP kinase). To examine the role of ERK-1/2 in the mechanism of eosinophil activation, a selective inhibitor of MAP kinase kinase-1/2 (MEK-1/2), PD098059, was employed. However, PD 098059 at concentrations that attenuated ERK-1/2 activation had no significant affect on eosinophil activation. In contrast, a role for tyrosine kinases in LTB4-induced eosinophil activation was suggested by studies with the tyrosine kinase inhibitors, herbimycin A and lavendustin A. However, the results of those experiments implied divergent pathways for the control of eosinophil responses because the inhibitors were more effective at attenuating H2O2 generation than [3H]AA release, and had little effect on homotypic aggregation.

Contribution of endothelial selectins and alpha 4 integrins to eosinophil trafficking in allergic and nonallergic inflammatory reactions in skin.

The role of endothelial selectins in mediating eosinophil recruitment was assessed using the trafficking of 111In-labeled blood eosinophils in mouse skin. An intradermal injection of chemoattractants (leukotriene B4, macrophage inflammatory protein-l alpha, and eotaxin) resulted in a rapid accumulation of 111In eosinophils that was reduced 49 to 91% by anti-P-selectin mAb. An anti-E-selectin mAb was ineffective, although a combined E- and P-selectin blockade resulted in >95% inhibition of all responses. The accumulation of a pulse of 111In eosinophils at sites of active cutaneous anaphylaxis (ACA) at 4 to 8 h and at 20 to 24 h after Ag challenge was completely dependent upon E- and P-selectin in combination, but not in isolation. In contrast, at 20 to 24 h after Ag challenge in a delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction in skin, 111In eosinophil accumulation was largely independent of endothelial selectins, even when L-selectin was also blocked. An anti-alpha 4 integrin mAb significantly reduced 111In eosinophil trafficking in both allergic reactions but was slightly more effective in the DTH reaction compared with the ACA reaction. These results show that P-selectin and to a lesser extent E-selectin mediate eosinophil recruitment in skin in acute inflammatory reactions. In allergic, late-onset inflammatory reactions, neither P- nor E-selectin alone are sufficient to mediate eosinophil accumulation; when combined, they are essential for trafficking in ACA but are less important in the DTH reaction. Whether alpha 4 integrin-based strategies will be more effective than selectin-based strategies at inhibiting eosinophil recruitment in human disease remains to be determined.