Valence Photoionization of Thymine: Ionization Energies, Vibrational Structure, and Fragmentation Pathways from the Slow to the Ultrafast.

The photoionization of thymine has been studied by using vacuum ultraviolet radiation and imaging photoelectron photoion coincidence spectroscopy after aerosol flash vaporization and bulk evaporation. The two evaporation techniques have been evaluated by comparison of the photoelectron spectra and breakdown diagrams. The adiabatic ionization energies for the first four electronic states were determined to be 8.922±0.008, 9.851±0.008, 10.30±0.02, and 10.82±0.01 eV. Vibrational features have been assigned for the first three electronic states with the help of Franck-Condon factor calculations based on density functional theory and wave function theory vibrational analysis within the harmonic approximation. The breakdown diagram of thymine, as supported by composite method ab initio calculations, suggests that the main fragment ions are formed in sequential HNCO-, CO-, and H-loss dissociation steps from the thymine parent ion, with the first step corresponding to a retro-Diels-Alder reaction. The dissociation rate constants were extracted from the photoion time-of-flight distributions and used together with the breakdown curves to construct a statistical model to determine 0 K appearance energies of 11.15±0.16 and 11.95±0.09 eV for the m/z 83 and 55 fragment ions, respectively. These results have allowed us to revise previously proposed fragmentation mechanisms and to propose a model for the final, nonstatistical H-loss step in the breakdown diagram, yielding the m/z 54 fragment ion at an appearance energy of 13.24 eV.

The Distant Double Bond Determines the Fate of the Carboxylic Group in the Dissociative Photoionization of Oleic Acid.

The valence threshold photoionization of oleic acid has been studied using synchrotron VUV radiation and imaging photoelectron photoion coincidence (iPEPICO) spectroscopy. An oleic acid aerosol beam was impacted on a copper thermodesorber, heated to 130 °C, to evaporate the particles quantitatively. Upon threshold photoionization, oleic acid produces the intact parent ion first, followed by dehydration at higher energies. Starting at ca. 10 eV, a large number of fragment ions slowly rise suggesting several fragmentation coordinates with quasi-degenerate activation energies. However, water loss is the dominant low-energy dissociation channel, and it is shown to be closely related to the unsaturated carbon chain. In the lowest-barrier process, one of the four allylic hydrogen atoms is transferred to the carboxyl group to form the leaving water molecule and a cyclic ketone fragment ion. A statistical model to analyze the breakdown diagram and measured rate constants yields a 0 K appearance energy of 9.77 eV, which can be compared with the density functional theory result of 9.19 eV. Alternative H-transfer steps yielding a terminal C=O group are ruled out based on energetics and kinetics arguments. Some of the previous photoionization mass spectrometric studies also reported 2 amu and 26 amu loss fragment ions, corresponding to hydrogen and acetylene loss. We could not identify such peaks in the mass spectrum of oleic acid.

Dissociative Ionization Mechanism and Appearance Energies in Adipic Acid Revealed by Imaging Photoelectron Photoion Coincidence, Selective Deuteration, and Calculations.

Adipic acid, a model compound for oxygenated organic aerosol, has been studied at the VUV beamline of the Swiss Light Source. Internal energy selected cations were prepared by threshold photoionization using vacuum ultraviolet synchrotron radiation and imaging photoelectron photoion coincidence spectroscopy (iPEPICO). The threshold photoelectron spectrum yields a vertical ionization energy (IE) of 10.5 eV, significantly above the calculated adiabatic IE of 8.6 eV. The cationic minimum is accessible after vertical ionization by H-transfer from one of the γ-carbons to a carbonyl oxygen and is sufficiently energetic to decay by water loss at the ionization onset. The slope of the breakdown curves, quantum chemical calculations, and selective deuteration of the carboxylic hydrogens establish the dissociative photoionization mechanism. After ionization, one γ-methylene hydrogen and the two carboxylic hydrogens are randomized prior to H2O loss. On the basis of the deuteration degree in the H2O + CO-loss product at higher energies, a direct water-loss channel without complete randomization also exists. The breakdown diagram and center of gravity of the H2O + CO-loss peak were modeled to obtain 0 K appearance energies of 10.77, 10.32, and 11.53 eV for H2O + CO loss, CH2COOH loss, and H2O + CH2COOH loss from adipic acid. These agree well with the CBS-QB3 calculated values of 10.68, 10.45, and 11.57 eV, respectively, which shows that threshold photoionization can yield energetics data as long as the dissociation is statistical, even when the parent ion cannot be observed. The results can be used as a starting point for a deeper understanding of the ionization and low-energy fragmentation of organic aerosol components.

Spatial Variation of Aerosol Chemical Composition and Organic Components Identified by Positive Matrix Factorization in the Barcelona Region.

The spatial distribution of PM1 components in the Barcelona metropolitan area was investigated using on-road mobile measurements of atmospheric particle- and gas-phase compounds during the DAURE campaign in March 2009. Positive matrix factorization (PMF) applied to organic aerosol (OA) data yielded 5 factors: hydrocarbon-like OA (HOA), cooking OA (COA), biomass burning OA (BBOA), and low volatility and semivolatile oxygenated OA (LV-OOA and SV-OOA). The area under investigation (∼500 km(2)) was divided into six zones (city center, harbor, industrial area, precoastal depression, 2 mountain ranges) for measurements and data analysis. Mean zonal OA concentrations are 4.9-9.5 µg m(-3). The area is heavily impacted by local primary emissions (HOA 14-38%, COA 10-18%, BBOA 10-12% of OA); concentrations of traffic-related components, especially black carbon, are biased high due to the on-road nature of the measurements. The formation of secondary OA adds more than half of the OA burden outside the city center (SV-OOA 14-40%, LV-OOA 17-42% of OA). A case study of one measurement drive from the shore to the precoastal mountain range furthest downwind of the city center indicates the importance of nonfossil over anthropogenic secondary OA based on OA/CO.

Recent developments in the mass spectrometry of atmospheric aerosols.

Atmospheric aerosol particles consist of a highly complex mixture of thousands of different compounds. Mass spectrometric techniques are well suited for the analysis of these particles, with each method of analysis having specific advantages and disadvantages. On-line techniques offer high time resolution and thus allow for the investigation of rapidly changing signals. They typically measure either single particles or the average non-refractory submicrometer aerosol. Off-line techniques are often coupled to chromatography or another technique separating for a specific property, which enhances their resolving power. Ultra-high resolution mass spectrometry allows for an unambiguous assignment of the elemental composition throughout the majority of the mass range typically measured in ambient aerosol samples, i.e. up to about m/z 400-600. The quantitative determination of individual compounds, or of classes of compounds, remains an important, but often unresolved, topic. Examples of applications of various mass spectrometric techniques are presented, both from laboratory and field studies.

Enantioselective trans dihydroxylation of nonactivated C-C double bonds of aliphatic heterocycles with Sphingomonas sp. HXN-200.

The bacterial strain Sphingomonas sp. HXN-200 was used to catalyze the trans dihydroxylation ofN-substituted 1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridines 1 and 3-pyrrolines 4 giving the corresponding 3,4-dihydroxypiperidines 3 and 3,4-dihydroxypyrrolidines 6, respectively, with high enantioselectivity and high activity. The trans dihydroxylation was sequentially catalyzed by a monooxygenase and an epoxide hydrolase in the strain with epoxide as intermediate. While both epoxidation and hydrolysis steps contributed to the overall enantioselectivity in trans dihydroxylation of 1, the enantioselectivity in trans dihydroxylation of the symmetric substrate 4 was generated only in the hydrolysis of meso-epoxide 5. The absolute configuration for the bioproducts (+)-3 and (+)-6 was established as (3R,4R) by chemical correlations. Preparative trans dihydroxylation of 1a and 4b with frozen/thawed cells of Sphingomonas sp. HXN-200 afforded the corresponding (+)-(3R,4R)-3,4-dihydroxypiperidine 3a and (+)-(3R,4R)-3,4-dihydroxy pyrrolidine 6b in 96% ee both and in 60% and 80% yield, respectively. These results represent first examples of enantioselective trans dihydroxylation with nonterpene substrates and with bacterial catalyst, thus significantly extending this methodology in practical synthesis of valuable and useful trans diols. Enantioselective hydrolysis of racemic epoxide 2a with Sphingomonas sp. HXN-200 gave 34% of (-)-2a in >99% ee, which is a versatile chiral building block. Further hydrolysis of (-)-2a with the same strain afforded (-)-(3S,4S)-3a in 96% ee and 92% yield. Thus, both enantiomers of 3a can be prepared by biotransformation with Sphingomonas sp. HXN-200.

Highly enantioselective hydrolysis of alicyclic meso-epoxides with a bacterial epoxide hydrolase from Sphingomonas sp. HXN-200: simple syntheses of alicyclic vicinal trans-diols.

Hydrolysis of N-benzyloxycarbonyl-3,4-epoxy-pyrrolidine and cyclohexene oxide with the epoxide hydrolase of Sphingomonas sp. HXN-200, respectively, gave the corresponding vicinal trans-diols in high ee and yield, representing the first example of enantioselective hydrolysis of a meso-epoxide with a bacterial epoxide hydrolase.