Assessing soil carbon stocks under pastures through orbital remote sensing

The growing demand of world food and energy supply increases the threat of global warming due to higher greenhouse gas emissions by agricultural activity. Therefore, it is widely admitted that agriculture must establish a new paradigm in terms of environmental sustainability that incorporate techniques for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. This article addresses to the scientific demand to estimate in a fast and inexpensive manner current and potential soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks in degraded pastures, using remote sensing techniques. Four pastures on sandy soils under Brazilian Cerrado vegetation in São Paulo state were chosen due to their SOC sequestration potential, which was characterized for the soil depth 0-50 cm. Subsequently, a linear regression analysis was performed between SOC and Leaf Area Index (LAI) measured in the field (LAIfield) and derived by satellite (LAIsatellite) as well as SOC and pasture reflectance in six spectra from 450 nm - 2350 nm, using the Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) sensor of satellite Landsat 7. A high correlation between SOC and LAIfield (R² = 0.9804) and LAIsatellite (R² = 0.9812) was verified. The suitability of satellite derived LAI for SOC determination leads to the assumption, that orbital remote sensing is a very promising SOC estimation technique from regional to global scale.

Assessing soil carbon stocks under pastures through orbital remote sensing

The growing demand of world food and energy supply increases the threat of global warming due to higher greenhouse gas emissions by agricultural activity. Therefore, it is widely admitted that agriculture must establish a new paradigm in terms of environmental sustainability that incorporate techniques for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. This article addresses to the scientific demand to estimate in a fast and inexpensive manner current and potential soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks in degraded pastures, using remote sensing techniques. Four pastures on sandy soils under Brazilian Cerrado vegetation in São Paulo state were chosen due to their SOC sequestration potential, which was characterized for the soil depth 0-50 cm. Subsequently, a linear regression analysis was performed between SOC and Leaf Area Index (LAI) measured in the field (LAIfield) and derived by satellite (LAIsatellite) as well as SOC and pasture reflectance in six spectra from 450 nm - 2350 nm, using the Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) sensor of satellite Landsat 7. A high correlation between SOC and LAIfield (R² = 0.9804) and LAIsatellite (R² = 0.9812) was verified. The suitability of satellite derived LAI for SOC determination leads to the assumption, that orbital remote sensing is a very promising SOC estimation technique from regional to global scale.

Phytoremediation of lead by jack beans on a Rhodic Hapludox amended with EDTA

A greenhouse study was conducted to evaluate the effects of ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) addition to soils on the lead (Pb) phytoextraction potential of jack beans (Canavalia ensiformis L.). In a pot experimentSoil samples (dystrophic Rhodic Hapludox) were treated with six Pb rates (0, 100, 200, 350, 1,200, and 2,400 mg kg-1 soil) applied as Pb(NO3)2 without and with EDTA application (0 and 0.5 g kg-1, respectively). Lead, Cl-, NO3-, NH4+, SO4(2-), H2PO4-, Zn2+, Cu2+, Fe3+, Al3+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and DOC (dissolved organic carbon) concentrations obtained in a saturation soil extract (soil:water ratio of 1:0.3) were used for Pb speciation by means of the software Visual-Minteq 2.30. Soil Pb-availability was assessed with Diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) extraction. EDTA treated soils showed higher Pb (as PbEDTA2-), and Fe (as FeEDTA-) concentrations in soil solution leading to higher uptake of these elements by the jack bean. On the other hand, it decreased the concentration of stable complexes as Pb-DOC and Fe-DOC. EDTA also induced better nutrition to plants building up the concentration of non target metals (Ca, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn) in shoots. Shoot dry matter yield remained constant even at the highest Pb rates after EDTA treatment. Jack bean can be considered as a potential Pb-phytoextractor. In addition, the DTPA solution was effective to assess Pb availability to the plants at all applied Pb rates.

Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar, em condições de casa de vegetação, os efeitos do ácido etilenodiamino tetraacético (EDTA) no potencial fitoextrator do feijão-de-porco (Canavalia ensiformis L.). Amostras de um Latossolo Vermelho distrófico foram tratadas com seis doses de Pb (0, 100, 200, 350, 1.200 e 2.400 mg kg-1 de solo) aplicadas como Pb(NO3)2 com e sem a aplicação de EDTA (0 e 0,5 g kg-1, respectivamente) e colocadas em vasos. A concentração de Pb2+, Cl-, NO3-, NH4+, SO4(2-), H2PO4-, Zn2+, Cu2+, Fe3+, Al3+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ e COD (carbono orgânico dissolvido) foram determinadas no extrato de saturação (razão solo:água de 1:0,3) e utilizadas para especiação iônica através do software Visual-Minteq 2.30. A disponibilidade de Pb foi avaliada com solução extratora de ácido dietilenotriamino pentacético (DTPA). O solo tratado com EDTA apresentou maior concentração de Pb (como PbEDTA2-) e Fe (como FeEDTA-) na solução do solo levando a maior absorção destes elementos pelo feijão de porco. Por outro lado reduziu a concentração das espécies Pb-COD e Fe-COD. O EDTA também contribuiu com melhor nutrição da planta devido ao aumento da concentração de outros nutrientes (Ca, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe e Mn) na parte aérea. A produção de matéria seca foi constante mesmo para as doses mais altas de Pb no solo. O feijão-de-porco possui potencial fitorremediador. O extrator DTPA foi efetivo em avaliar a disponibilidade de Pb para as plantas para todas as doses de Pb aplicadas.

Phytoremediation of lead by jack beans on a Rhodic Hapludox amended with EDTA

A greenhouse study was conducted to evaluate the effects of ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) addition to soils on the lead (Pb) phytoextraction potential of jack beans (Canavalia ensiformis L.). In a pot experimentSoil samples (dystrophic Rhodic Hapludox) were treated with six Pb rates (0, 100, 200, 350, 1,200, and 2,400 mg kg-1 soil) applied as Pb(NO3)2 without and with EDTA application (0 and 0.5 g kg-1, respectively). Lead, Cl-, NO3-, NH4+, SO4(2-), H2PO4-, Zn2+, Cu2+, Fe3+, Al3+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and DOC (dissolved organic carbon) concentrations obtained in a saturation soil extract (soil:water ratio of 1:0.3) were used for Pb speciation by means of the software Visual-Minteq 2.30. Soil Pb-availability was assessed with Diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) extraction. EDTA treated soils showed higher Pb (as PbEDTA2-), and Fe (as FeEDTA-) concentrations in soil solution leading to higher uptake of these elements by the jack bean. On the other hand, it decreased the concentration of stable complexes as Pb-DOC and Fe-DOC. EDTA also induced better nutrition to plants building up the concentration of non target metals (Ca, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn) in shoots. Shoot dry matter yield remained constant even at the highest Pb rates after EDTA treatment. Jack bean can be considered as a potential Pb-phytoextractor. In addition, the DTPA solution was effective to assess Pb availability to the plants at all applied Pb rates.

Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar, em condições de casa de vegetação, os efeitos do ácido etilenodiamino tetraacético (EDTA) no potencial fitoextrator do feijão-de-porco (Canavalia ensiformis L.). Amostras de um Latossolo Vermelho distrófico foram tratadas com seis doses de Pb (0, 100, 200, 350, 1.200 e 2.400 mg kg-1 de solo) aplicadas como Pb(NO3)2 com e sem a aplicação de EDTA (0 e 0,5 g kg-1, respectivamente) e colocadas em vasos. A concentração de Pb2+, Cl-, NO3-, NH4+, SO4(2-), H2PO4-, Zn2+, Cu2+, Fe3+, Al3+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ e COD (carbono orgânico dissolvido) foram determinadas no extrato de saturação (razão solo:água de 1:0,3) e utilizadas para especiação iônica através do software Visual-Minteq 2.30. A disponibilidade de Pb foi avaliada com solução extratora de ácido dietilenotriamino pentacético (DTPA). O solo tratado com EDTA apresentou maior concentração de Pb (como PbEDTA2-) e Fe (como FeEDTA-) na solução do solo levando a maior absorção destes elementos pelo feijão de porco. Por outro lado reduziu a concentração das espécies Pb-COD e Fe-COD. O EDTA também contribuiu com melhor nutrição da planta devido ao aumento da concentração de outros nutrientes (Ca, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe e Mn) na parte aérea. A produção de matéria seca foi constante mesmo para as doses mais altas de Pb no solo. O feijão-de-porco possui potencial fitorremediador. O extrator DTPA foi efetivo em avaliar a disponibilidade de Pb para as plantas para todas as doses de Pb aplicadas.

Conversion of cerrado into agricultural land in the south-western Amazon: carbon stocks and soil fertility

Land use change and land management practices can modify soil carbon (C) dynamics and soil fertility. This study evaluated the effect of tillage systems (no-tillage - NT and conventional tillage - CT) on soil C and nutrient stocks in an Oxisol from an Amazonian cerrado following land use change. The study also identified relationships between these stocks and other soil attributes. Carbon, P, K, Ca and Mg stocks, adjusted to the equivalent soil mass in the cerrado (CE), were higher under NT. After adoption of all but one of the NT treatments, C stocks were higher than they were in the other areas we considered. Correlations between C and nutrient stocks showed positive correlations with Ca and Mg under NT due to continuous liming, higher crop residue inputs and lack of soil disturbance, associated with positive correlations with cation exchange capacity (CEC), base saturation and pH. The positive correlation (r = 0.91, p 0.05) between C stocks and CEC in the CE indicates the important contribution of soil organic matter (SOM) to CEC in tropical soils, although the exchange sites are - under natural conditions - mainly occupied by H and Al. Phosphorus and K stocks showed positive correlations (0.81 and 0.82, respectively) with C stocks in the CE, indicating the direct relationship of P and K with SOM in natural ecosystems. The high spatial variability of P and K fertilizer application may be obscuring these soil nutrient stocks. In this study, the main source of P and K was fertilizer rather than SOM.

Mudanças de uso da terra e práticas de manejo modificam a dinâmica do C e a fertilidade do solo. Este estudo avaliou as implicações dos sistemas de cultivo (NT e CT) nos estoques de C e de nutrientes e identificou inter-relações entre estes estoques e outros atributos da fertilidade do solo em Latossolo após a mudança do uso da terra no cerrado amazônico. Os estoques de C e de nutrientes (P, K, Ca e Mg) ajustados pela massa equivalente do solo sob cerrado (CE), foram maiores principalmente sob NT. Após a adoção do NT, exceto em 2NT, os estoques de C foram maiores em relação às demais áreas avaliadas. Correlações entre estoques de C e de nutrientes revelaram algumas correlações positivas com Ca e Mg nas áreas sob NT, devido ao uso continuo de calcário, à maior quantidade de resíduos culturais e ao não revolvimento do solo, associado à correlações positivas com CTC, saturação por bases e pH. A correlação positiva (r = 0,91, p 0,05) entre estoques de C e CTC em CE indica a importante contribuição da MOS na CTC de solos tropicais, embora os sítios de troca estejam ocupados principalmente por H + Al. Estoques de P e K mostraram correlações positivas com estoques de C em CE (0,81 e 0,82; respectivamente), indicando a alta relação de P e K com a MOS em ecossistemas naturais. A alta variabilidade espacial associada à aplicação de fertilizantes (P e K) no sulco de plantio pode ter mascarado os resultados dos estoques. A principal fonte destes nutrientes para o solo foi o fertilizante aplicado e não a MOS.

Conversion of cerrado into agricultural land in the south-western Amazon: carbon stocks and soil fertility

Land use change and land management practices can modify soil carbon (C) dynamics and soil fertility. This study evaluated the effect of tillage systems (no-tillage - NT and conventional tillage - CT) on soil C and nutrient stocks in an Oxisol from an Amazonian cerrado following land use change. The study also identified relationships between these stocks and other soil attributes. Carbon, P, K, Ca and Mg stocks, adjusted to the equivalent soil mass in the cerrado (CE), were higher under NT. After adoption of all but one of the NT treatments, C stocks were higher than they were in the other areas we considered. Correlations between C and nutrient stocks showed positive correlations with Ca and Mg under NT due to continuous liming, higher crop residue inputs and lack of soil disturbance, associated with positive correlations with cation exchange capacity (CEC), base saturation and pH. The positive correlation (r = 0.91, p 0.05) between C stocks and CEC in the CE indicates the important contribution of soil organic matter (SOM) to CEC in tropical soils, although the exchange sites are - under natural conditions - mainly occupied by H and Al. Phosphorus and K stocks showed positive correlations (0.81 and 0.82, respectively) with C stocks in the CE, indicating the direct relationship of P and K with SOM in natural ecosystems. The high spatial variability of P and K fertilizer application may be obscuring these soil nutrient stocks. In this study, the main source of P and K was fertilizer rather than SOM.

Mudanças de uso da terra e práticas de manejo modificam a dinâmica do C e a fertilidade do solo. Este estudo avaliou as implicações dos sistemas de cultivo (NT e CT) nos estoques de C e de nutrientes e identificou inter-relações entre estes estoques e outros atributos da fertilidade do solo em Latossolo após a mudança do uso da terra no cerrado amazônico. Os estoques de C e de nutrientes (P, K, Ca e Mg) ajustados pela massa equivalente do solo sob cerrado (CE), foram maiores principalmente sob NT. Após a adoção do NT, exceto em 2NT, os estoques de C foram maiores em relação às demais áreas avaliadas. Correlações entre estoques de C e de nutrientes revelaram algumas correlações positivas com Ca e Mg nas áreas sob NT, devido ao uso continuo de calcário, à maior quantidade de resíduos culturais e ao não revolvimento do solo, associado à correlações positivas com CTC, saturação por bases e pH. A correlação positiva (r = 0,91, p 0,05) entre estoques de C e CTC em CE indica a importante contribuição da MOS na CTC de solos tropicais, embora os sítios de troca estejam ocupados principalmente por H + Al. Estoques de P e K mostraram correlações positivas com estoques de C em CE (0,81 e 0,82; respectivamente), indicando a alta relação de P e K com a MOS em ecossistemas naturais. A alta variabilidade espacial associada à aplicação de fertilizantes (P e K) no sulco de plantio pode ter mascarado os resultados dos estoques. A principal fonte destes nutrientes para o solo foi o fertilizante aplicado e não a MOS.

Expansão dos solos hidromórficos e mudanças na paisagem: um estudo de caso na região Sudeste da Amazônia Brasileira

In the Southwestern Brazilian Amazon, a detailed study on the pedological cover of a representative toposequence for the region, characterized by lowered plateaus with topographic depressions, was carried out. The results indicated that pedogenic processes can be considered to be responsible for topographic smoothing and changes of the natural landscape. The main factor involved in this transformation process represents the upwards expansion of hydromorphic soil conditions from the topographic depressions developed in lower parts of the plateaus. This process includes internal transformations and degradations of the soil matrix leading to changes in soil structure, chemical composition and, diminishment of the original soil volume.

Na região sudoeste da Amazônia brasileira, foi realizado um estudo detalhado da cobertura pedológica em uma toposseqüência representativa da paisagem regional, caracterizada por baixos platôs com depressões topográficas. Os resultados indicaram que os processos pedogenéticos podem ser considerados como responsáveis pelo rebaixamento topográfico e mudanças da paisagem natural. O principal fator envolvido neste processo de transformação é a expansão remontante da hidromorfia, a partir das depressões topográficas desenvolvidas nas superfícies dos platôs. Este processo envolve transformações e degradações internas na matriz do solo acarretando em modificações na estrutura, composição química e diminuição do volume do solo.

Expansão dos solos hidromórficos e mudanças na paisagem: um estudo de caso na região Sudeste da Amazônia Brasileira / Expansion of hydromorphic soils and landscape changes: a case study in the Southwestern Brazilian Amazon

Na região sudoeste da Amazônia brasileira, foi realizado um estudo detalhado da cobertura pedológica em uma toposseqüência representativa da paisagem regional, caracterizada por baixos platôs com depressões topográficas. Os resultados indicaram que os processos pedogenéticos podem ser considerados como responsáveis pelo rebaixamento topográfico e mudanças da paisagem natural. O principal fator envolvido neste processo de transformação é a expansão remontante da hidromorfia, a partir das depressões topográficas desenvolvidas nas superfícies dos platôs. Este processo envolve transformações e degradações internas na matriz do solo acarretando em modificações na estrutura, composição química e diminuição do volume do solo.

In the Southwestern Brazilian Amazon, a detailed study on the pedological cover of a representative toposequence for the region, characterized by lowered plateaus with topographic depressions, was carried out. The results indicated that pedogenic processes can be considered to be responsible for topographic smoothing and changes of the natural landscape. The main factor involved in this transformation process represents the upwards expansion of hydromorphic soil conditions from the topographic depressions developed in lower parts of the plateaus. This process includes internal transformations and degradations of the soil matrix leading to changes in soil structure, chemical composition and, diminishment of the original soil volume.

Nitrogen forms, pH and total carbon in a soil incubated with treated sewage effluent

In this study, an experiment under controlled conditions was carried out to determine the effects of secondary-treated sewage effluent (STSE) application on soil nitrogen concentrations (mineral and total), total carbon and soil pH. The soil and STSE used were collected at Lins, São Paulo State, Brazil. A completely randomized design was used, in completed factorial 4x11 (weekly application rates of 0, 100, 150 and 200 mL STSE per kg soil; and, eleven soil incubation periods from 0 to 10 weeks) with four replicates. The STSE was applied simulating common surface irrigation. Seven days after each incubation period, ammonium and nitrate contents were determined. Additionally, pH and total carbon and nitrogen contents were measured in the soil after 10 weeks. STSE application increased the nitrogen content (total and mineral - mainly as nitrate) and soil pH. For the total carbon content no differences were observed.

A colocação dos efluentes de esgotos no solo, apesar de ser uma prática comum em diversos países, como meio de proteger os cursos d’água e fornecer nutrientes aos agrossistemas, tem sido pouco estudada no Brasil. Objetivou-se neste trabalho avaliar, em condições controladas, os efeitos da aplicação de efluente do tratamento secundário de esgoto nas concentrações de nitrogênio (mineral e total), carbono total e no pH do solo. O efluente e o solo foram oriundos de Lins (SP). Foi empregado delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado, em fatorial completo 4x11 (aplicação semanal de 0, 100, 150 e 200 mL de efluente por kg de solo; e onze períodos de incubação do solo - 0 a 10 semanas), com quatro repetições. O efluente foi aplicado no solo simulando-se a irrigação por superfície. Sete dias após a última irrigação foram determinadas as concentrações de nitrogênio mineral e, para o solo incubado por 10 semanas, também foi determinado o pH e os teores totais de carbono e nitrogênio. O incremento da dose de efluente aumentou as concentrações de nitrogênio (total e mineral - principalmente nitrato) e o pH do solo, mas o teor de carbono total não foi influenciado pelos tratamentos.

Agricultural use of treated sewage effluents: agronomic and environmental implications and perspectives for Brazil

In many studies worldwide the use of treated sewage effluents (TSE) as water and nutrient sources in agricultural irrigation have been introduced as a viable alternative for wastewater destination in the environment. Considering agronomic and environmental aspects the objectives of this review were: (i) to present an overview of TSE irrigation on different agro-systems (annual crops, orchards, forests and forages); and (ii) to show the principal changes on chemical, physical and microbiological soil characteristics after TSE application. Various studies have revealed that the nutrient supply only by TSE irrigation was not sufficient to meet plant nutrient requirements resulting in yield decreases. The problem could be solved by an adapted effluent/fertilizer management. Moreover, TSE could generally substitute efficiently freshwater for irrigation. Regarding soil quality conditions, TSE irrigation affected mainly: (i) total soil carbon and nitrogen, and mineral nitrogen in soil solution; (ii) microbial activity, composition of microbial communities and their function; (iii) exchangeable calcium and magnesium; (iv) salinity, sodicity, clay dispersion and hydraulic conductivity. Other soil parameters considered in this review (e.g. heavy metals) did not present significant changes over short and medium terms. Due to the often observed accumulation of sodium and nitrogen losses (leaching, volatilization and denitrification) after TSE irrigation, the monitoring of these components is of crucial importance for a sustainable use. Finally, further studies on the technical-economical-environmental viability of TSE irrigation are required to establish reliable recommendations for TSE use particularly in Brazilian agro-systems.

O uso dos efluentes de tratamento de esgoto (ETEs) como fonte d'água e nutrientes na agricultura (via irrigação) tem sido, em diversos locais, uma alternativa viável para a disposição das águas residuárias no ambiente. Os objetivos dessa revisão foram: (i) enfocar aspectos agronômicos e ambientais concernentes ao uso de ETEs em diferentes agrossistemas (culturas anuais, fruticultura, florestas e forragens); (ii) enfatizar as principais mudanças nas características químicas, físicas e microbiológicas dos solos irrigados com ETEs. Foram observados que, em diversos trabalhos, a irrigação com ETEs não foi suficiente para atender a demanda nutricional das plantas, resultando em diminuição no rendimento. Esse problema poderia ser resolvido mediante adequação do manejo da fertilização e irrigação. Além disso, os ETEs poderiam substituir eficientemente a água doce normalmente empregada na irrigação. Quanto a qualidade de solo, a irrigação com ETEs tem alterado principalmente os parâmetros: (i) carbono total e nitrogênio total no solo e nitrogênio mineral na solução no solo; (ii) atividade, composição e função da comunidade microbiana; (iii) cálcio e magnésio trocáveis; (iv) salinidade, sodicidade, dispersão de argilas e condutividade hidráulica. Outros parâmetros de qualidade de solo (por exemplo, metais pesados) não apresentaram mudanças significativas em curto e médio prazo. O monitoramento da acumulação de sódio e das perdas de nitrogênio (lixiviação, volatilização e denitrificação) é crucial para o uso sustentável dos ETEs na irrigação. Finalmente, mais estudos são necessários para mostrar a viabilidade técnico-econômico-ambiental, objetivando-se a recomendação segura dos ETEs na irrigação dos agrossistemas brasileiros.

Agricultural use of treated sewage effluents: agronomic and environmental implications and perspectives for Brazil

In many studies worldwide the use of treated sewage effluents (TSE) as water and nutrient sources in agricultural irrigation have been introduced as a viable alternative for wastewater destination in the environment. Considering agronomic and environmental aspects the objectives of this review were: (i) to present an overview of TSE irrigation on different agro-systems (annual crops, orchards, forests and forages); and (ii) to show the principal changes on chemical, physical and microbiological soil characteristics after TSE application. Various studies have revealed that the nutrient supply only by TSE irrigation was not sufficient to meet plant nutrient requirements resulting in yield decreases. The problem could be solved by an adapted effluent/fertilizer management. Moreover, TSE could generally substitute efficiently freshwater for irrigation. Regarding soil quality conditions, TSE irrigation affected mainly: (i) total soil carbon and nitrogen, and mineral nitrogen in soil solution; (ii) microbial activity, composition of microbial communities and their function; (iii) exchangeable calcium and magnesium; (iv) salinity, sodicity, clay dispersion and hydraulic conductivity. Other soil parameters considered in this review (e.g. heavy metals) did not present significant changes over short and medium terms. Due to the often observed accumulation of sodium and nitrogen losses (leaching, volatilization and denitrification) after TSE irrigation, the monitoring of these components is of crucial importance for a sustainable use. Finally, further studies on the technical-economical-environmental viability of TSE irrigation are required to establish reliable recommendations for TSE use particularly in Brazilian agro-systems.

O uso dos efluentes de tratamento de esgoto (ETEs) como fonte d'água e nutrientes na agricultura (via irrigação) tem sido, em diversos locais, uma alternativa viável para a disposição das águas residuárias no ambiente. Os objetivos dessa revisão foram: (i) enfocar aspectos agronômicos e ambientais concernentes ao uso de ETEs em diferentes agrossistemas (culturas anuais, fruticultura, florestas e forragens); (ii) enfatizar as principais mudanças nas características químicas, físicas e microbiológicas dos solos irrigados com ETEs. Foram observados que, em diversos trabalhos, a irrigação com ETEs não foi suficiente para atender a demanda nutricional das plantas, resultando em diminuição no rendimento. Esse problema poderia ser resolvido mediante adequação do manejo da fertilização e irrigação. Além disso, os ETEs poderiam substituir eficientemente a água doce normalmente empregada na irrigação. Quanto a qualidade de solo, a irrigação com ETEs tem alterado principalmente os parâmetros: (i) carbono total e nitrogênio total no solo e nitrogênio mineral na solução no solo; (ii) atividade, composição e função da comunidade microbiana; (iii) cálcio e magnésio trocáveis; (iv) salinidade, sodicidade, dispersão de argilas e condutividade hidráulica. Outros parâmetros de qualidade de solo (por exemplo, metais pesados) não apresentaram mudanças significativas em curto e médio prazo. O monitoramento da acumulação de sódio e das perdas de nitrogênio (lixiviação, volatilização e denitrificação) é crucial para o uso sustentável dos ETEs na irrigação. Finalmente, mais estudos são necessários para mostrar a viabilidade técnico-econômico-ambiental, objetivando-se a recomendação segura dos ETEs na irrigação dos agrossistemas brasileiros.

Second German heavy-metal survey by means of mosses, and comparison of the first and second approach in Germany and other European countries.

This paper shows the geographic distribution in Germany of iron (Fe), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb) analyzed in mosses in 1995/96 and compares it with the results of the 1990/91 pilot study within a European moss-monitoring programme. Other elements (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ti, V, Zn) are compared on basis of the overall element medians for Germany of the 1990/91 and 1995/96 survey. Samples of Pleurozium schreberi, Scleropodium purum, Hypnum cupressiforme and Hylocomium splendens were taken at a total of 1026 sites. In the 1995/96 monitoring campaign, 95% of the original sites of the 1990/91 study were resampled. The results from 1995/96 display local elevated values and many cases of areas affected by known sources of heavy-metal emissions. The industrialized and urban regions of Germany are shown up clearly by the 1995/96 moss-monitoring results: the Ruhr area, parts of Saarland and Baden-Württemberg, as well as areas in eastern Germany. Relatively low values for many elements were found in large areas of Lower Saxony and Bavaria. A comparison of the results of the 1990/91 and 1995/96 moss-monitoring programmes shows a fall in the concentration of the presented elements (except cadmium, copper and zinc) over the relevant period. Especially in the former GDR, chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), titanium (Ti) and vanadium (V) decreased significantly. This is, firstly, a reflection of the closure of and/or technological improvements to large power plants; secondly it is due to the fact that lignite has given way to other fuels. Vanadium (V) and nickel (Ni), typical constituents of crude oil, also show a decrease in the western part and thus document changes in the type of fuel consumed. The significant fall in lead concentration in 1995/96 as compared to 1990/91 in what used to be East and West Germany probably results from the increasing use of lead-free petrol. A comparison of the median values for 1990/91 and 1995/96 in mosses to the rate of emission of heavy metals in Germany for 1990 and 1995 shows similar trends in the case of elements such as arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and lead (Pb). The comparison of the medians of the elements analyzed for 19 European countries indicates for most of the elements a general tendency to lower values in 1995, except for Lithuania, Netherlands, Portugal, Italy and United Kingdom.

Biogeochemical dynamics following land use change from forest to pasture in a humid tropical area (Rondjnia, Brazil): a multi-element approach by means of XRF-spectroscopy.

Forest burning for pastures in tropical areas represents an important component of biogeochemical cycles. In order to provide information concerning chemical modifications after forest burning, in this local study the total contents of 29 elements in topsoils were analyzed when forest is changed to pasture land. The work was carried out in 1999 in Rondjnia state (Brazilian Amazon Basin) focussing on a native forest site and four neighboring pastures established in 1987, 1983, 1972 and 1911 after forest conversion. Chemical fingerprint graphs of the pasture soils related to the forest soil illustrated mainly higher contents for the vast majority of macro- and micro nutrients, but for other elements as well (e.g. Ba, Sr, Cr, Ni, V or Pb). Also increases of pH levels were measured in all pastures, which remained higher than the forest values for decades. After initial increases of most of the elements in pasture of 1987 the decreases of some macro elements (e.g. C, N, K, Mg, S) in pasture 1983 as well as again the enhanced levels in pasture 1972 and 1911 suggest both a persistent leaching of these elements and a function of pasture age where external element inputs exceed outputs. Ash deposition, accumulation of organic matter, animal excreta as well as natural soil conditions are discussed as influencing factors on the element contents of the original forest and the pasture soils. Nevertheless, in this particular area continuous pasturing after forest clearing primarily enriched the soils in elements.