Potential Pathogens Reported in Species of the Family Viverridae and Their Implications for Human and Animal Health.

The Viverridae is a family of nocturnal carnivores including civets, genets and African linsangs. While a list of known organisms isolated from a species is an essential tool for population management, this review represents the first attempt to collate published reports of organisms isolated from viverrids. A wide range of organisms, including 11 viruses, eight bacterial species, one internal arthropod species, representatives from eight genera of protozoan, 21 genera of nematode, seven genera of cestode, eight genera of trematode and six genera of external arthropod (mites, ticks and louse), have been reported in literature spanning over a century of research. Many of these are capable of infecting multiple hosts, including humans. This is of concern given the anthropogenic factors that bring humans and domestic species into close contact with viverrids, facilitating transmission and spillover of organisms between groups. These factors include trade in viverrids for human consumption, captive management in zoos, rescue centres or on commercial breeding farms, and the increasing overlap of free-ranging viverrid distribution and human settlement.

Pneumonia due to Chlamydia pecorum in a Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus).

Chlamydiosis is a common infectious disease of koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus), but Chlamydia spp. have not yet been demonstrated to cause pneumonia in these animals. A juvenile male koala died following an episode of respiratory disease. At necropsy examination, the lung tissue was consolidated. Microscopical lesions in the lung included pyogranulomatous bronchopneumonia, proliferation of bronchiolar and alveolar epithelium and interstitial fibrosis. Hyperplastic bronchiolar epithelial cells contained aggregates of small basophilic punctate organisms, which were confirmed as chlamydiae by transmission electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry. Real-time polymerase chain reaction identified these as Chlamydia pecorum. This report provides the best evidence to date of chlamydial infection causing pneumonia in a koala, and the first evidence that C. pecorum is capable of infecting the bronchiolar epithelium of the koala.

In vitro activity of chloramphenicol, florfenicol and enrofloxacin against Chlamydia pecorum isolated from koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus).

OBJECTIVE: To determine the in vitro susceptibilities of koala isolates of Chlamydia pecorum to enrofloxacin and chloramphenicol, which are frequently used to treat koalas with chlamydiosis, and florfenicol, a derivative of chloramphenicol. METHODS: The in vitro susceptibilities were determined by culturing three stored isolates and seven clinical swabs of C. pecorum. Susceptibility testing was undertaken using cycloheximide-treated buffalo green monkey kidney cells in 96 well microtitre plates. RESULTS: The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for all isolates were 0.25-0.50 µg/mL (enrofloxacin), 1-2 µg/mL (chloramphenicol), and 1-2 µg/mL (florfenicol). Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values for five isolates were also determined and were within one two-fold dilution of MICs. The MICs and MBCs of these antimicrobials were within ranges previously reported for other chlamydial species. CONCLUSION: When combined with previously published pharmacokinetic data, the in vitro susceptibility results support chloramphenicol as a more appropriate treatment option than enrofloxacin for koalas with chlamydiosis. The susceptibility results also indicate florfenicol may be an appropriate treatment option for koalas with chlamydiosis, warranting further investigation.

Orchitis and Epididymitis in Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) Infected With Chlamydia pecorum.

Although Chlamydia causes disease of the urethra and prostate of male koalas, its impact on the testis and epididymis has not been examined. This study describes chronic-active and granulomatous orchitis and epididymitis with interstitial fibrosis associated with infection by Chlamydia pecorum in 2 of 18 adult male koalas being euthanized at a koala hospital, 8 of which also had chlamydial prostatitis. By immunohistochemistry and transmission electron microscopy, chlamydial inclusions were demonstrated within Sertoli cells directly associated with mild inflammation surrounding intact seminiferous and epididymal tubules, marked pyogranulomatous inflammation around disrupted tubules, replacement of tubules by interstitial fibrosis, and aspermia. The presence of C. pecorum but not Chlamydia pneumoniae was detected by quantitative polymerase chain reaction of formalin-fixed tissues of the left and right testes and right epididymis in 1 animal. This is the first report of orchitis and epididymitis in a koala infected with C. pecorum.

MHC class II diversity of koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations across their range.

Major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) genes code for proteins that bind and present antigenic peptides and trigger the adaptive immune response. We present a broad geographical study of MHCII DA ß1 (DAB) and DB ß1 (DBB) variants of the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus; n=191) from 12 populations across eastern Australia, with a total of 13 DAB and 7 DBB variants found. We identified greater MHCII variation and, possibly, additional gene copies in koala populations in the north (Queensland and New South Wales) relative to the south (Victoria), confirmed by STRUCTURE analyses and genetic differentiation using analysis of molecular variance. The higher MHCII diversity in the north relative to south could potentially be attributed to (i) significant founder effect in Victorian populations linked to historical translocation of bottlenecked koala populations and (ii) increased pathogen-driven balancing selection and/or local genetic drift in the north. Low MHCII genetic diversity in koalas from the south could reduce their potential response to disease, although the three DAB variants found in the south had substantial sequence divergence between variants. This study assessing MHCII diversity in the koala with historical translocations in some populations contributes to understanding the effects of population translocations on functional genetic diversity.

Validation of ultrasonography in detecting structural disease of the urogenital tract of the koala, Phascolarctos cinereus.

A retrospective review of case records of ultrasonography and necropsy outcomes of 62 koalas was used to investigate the accuracy of ultrasonography in assessing koala urogenital tract structural disease at the Port Macquarie Koala Hospital. The results showed high concordance, supporting ultrasonography as an effective tool for evaluating structural disease of the koala urogenital tract, most commonly seen with chlamydiosis. The study also illustrates the advances benefiting animal welfare that can be made by wildlife carer groups through using a scientific, evidence-based approach.

In vitro hepatic microsomal metabolism of meloxicam in koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus), brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), ringtail possums (Pseudocheirus peregrinus), rats (Rattus norvegicus) and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris).

Quantitative and qualitative aspects of in vitro metabolism of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug meloxicam, mediated via hepatic microsomes of specialized foliage (Eucalyptus) eating marsupials (koalas and ringtail possums), a generalized foliage eating marsupial (brushtail possum), rats, and dogs, are described. Using a substrate depletion method, intrinsic hepatic clearance (in vitro Clint) was determined. Significantly, rates of oxidative transformation of meloxicam, likely mediated via cytochromes P450 (CYP), were higher in marsupials compared to rats or dogs. The rank order of apparent in vitro Clint was brushtail possums (n=3) (mean: 394µL/min/mg protein), >koalas (n=6) (50), >ringtail possums (n=2) (36) (with no significant difference between koalas and ringtail possums), >pooled rats (3.2)>pooled dogs (in which the rate of depletion, as calculated by the ratio of the substrate remaining was <20% and too slow to determine). During the depletion of meloxicam, at a first-order rate constant, 5-hydroxymethyl metabolite (M1) was identified in the brushtail possums and the rat as the major metabolite. However, multiple hydroxyl metabolites were observed in the koala (M1, M2, and M3) and the ringtail possum (M1 and M3) indicating that these specialized foliage-eating marsupials have diverse oxidation capacity to metabolize meloxicam. Using a well-stirred model, the apparent in vitro Clint of meloxicam for koalas and the rat was further scaled to compare with published in vivo Cl. The closest in vivo Cl prediction from in vitro data of koalas was demonstrated with scaled hepatic Cl(total) (average fold error=1.9) excluding unbound fractions in the blood and microsome values; whereas for rats, the in-vitro scaled hepatic Cl fu(blood, mic), corrected with unbound fractions in the blood and microsome values, provided the best prediction (fold error=1.86). This study indicates that eutherians such as rats or dogs serve as inadequate models for dosage extrapolation of this drug to marsupials due to differences in hepatic turnover rate. Furthermore, as in vivo Cl is one of the pharmacokinetic indexes for determining therapeutic drug dosages, this study demonstrates the utility of in vitro to in vivo scaling as an alternative prediction method of drug Cl in koalas.

Pharmacokinetics of meloxicam in koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) after intravenous, subcutaneous and oral administration.

The pharmacokinetic profile of meloxicam in clinically healthy koalas (n = 15) was investigated. Single doses of meloxicam were administered intravenously (i.v.) (0.4 mg/kg; n = 5), subcutaneously (s.c.) (0.2 mg/kg; n = 1) or orally (0.2 mg/kg; n = 3), and multiple doses were administered to two groups of koalas via the oral or s.c. routes (n = 3 for both routes) with a loading dose of 0.2 mg/kg for day 1 followed by 0.1 mg/kg s.i.d for a further 3 days. Plasma meloxicam concentrations were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography. Following i.v. administration, meloxicam exhibited a rapid clearance (CL) of 0.44 ± 0.20 (SD) L/h/kg, a volume of distribution at terminal phase (Vz ) of 0.72 ± 0.22 L/kg and a volume of distribution at steady state (Vss ) of 0.22 ± 0.12 L/kg. Median plasma terminal half-life (t(1/2)) was 1.19 h (range 0.71-1.62 h). Following oral administration either from single or repeated doses, only maximum peak plasma concentration (C(max) 0.013 ± 0.001 and 0.014 ± 0.001 µg/mL, respectively) was measurable [limit of quantitation (LOQ) >0.01 µg/mL] between 4-8 h. Oral bioavailability was negligible in koalas. Plasma protein binding of meloxicam was ~98%. Three meloxicam metabolites were detected in plasma with one identified as the 5-hydroxy methyl derivative. This study demonstrated that koalas exhibited rapid CL and extremely poor oral bioavailability compared with other eutherian species. Accordingly, the currently recommended dose regimen of meloxicam for this species appears inadequate.

Pharmacokinetics of chloramphenicol following administration of intravenous and subcutaneous chloramphenicol sodium succinate, and subcutaneous chloramphenicol, to koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus).

Clinically normal koalas (n = 19) received a single dose of intravenous (i.v.) chloramphenicol sodium succinate (SS) (25 mg/kg; n = 6), subcutaneous (s.c.) chloramphenicol SS (60 mg/kg; n = 7) or s.c. chloramphenicol base (60 mg/kg; n = 6). Serial plasma samples were collected over 24-48 h, and chloramphenicol concentrations were determined using a validated high-performance liquid chromatography assay. The median (range) apparent clearance (CL/F) and elimination half-life (t(1/2)) of chloramphenicol after i.v. chloramphenicol SS administration were 0.52 (0.35-0.99) L/h/kg and 1.13 (0.76-1.40) h, respectively. Although the area under the concentration-time curve was comparable for the two s.c. formulations, the absorption rate-limited disposition of chloramphenicol base resulted in a lower median C(max) (2.52; range 0.75-6.80 µg/mL) and longer median tmax (8.00; range 4.00-12.00 h) than chloramphenicol SS (C(max) 20.37, range 13.88-25.15 µg/mL; t(max) 1.25, range 1.00-2.00 h). When these results were compared with susceptibility data for human Chlamydia isolates, the expected efficacy of the current chloramphenicol dosing regimen used in koalas to treat chlamydiosis remains uncertain and at odds with clinical observations.

Diagnosis, treatment and outcomes for koala chlamydiosis at a rehabilitation facility (1995-2005).

OBJECTIVE: To document the application of diagnostics and treatments at one rehabilitation facility over 10 years and their effects on recovery and post-release survival of 88 koalas treated for chlamydiosis, and to highlight associated wildlife care issues with potential significance to animal welfare and disease ecology. DESIGN: Using a retrospective analysis of medical records, we identified risk factors for successful release using a logistic regression model and descriptive statistics. PROCEDURE: We examined the clinical presentation, signalment, diagnostics, treatments, outcomes and whether released koalas were re-presented by the end of 2008 indicating post-release survival. RESULTS: Records of 88 koalas were included. Treatments and diagnostics were directed at the anatomical site displaying clinical signs. Younger age and use of ancillary treatments were associated with successful release. The type, route and duration of the treatments used were not those theorised to result in microbial cure. Despite this, approximately 50% of koalas were released and many survived in the wild for extended periods. CONCLUSIONS: Wildlife rehabilitators' records can guide research priorities and the development of care facilities and policies. This study identified the need for more accessible chlamydial diagnostic tests and veterinary support of carers, and the need for a more rigorous assessment of novel therapies. Current treatment regimens appear to be moderately successful in terms of clinical improvement, but it is unclear which aspects are responsible for the success or whether microbial cure is achieved. The long-term effect of released koalas on wild populations requires further study to assess its contribution to the conservation of koala populations.

Plasma concentrations of chloramphenicol after subcutaneous administration to koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) with chlamydiosis.

Nine mature koalas with chlamydiosis, typically keratoconjunctivitis and/or urogenital tract infection, were treated with daily subcutaneous injections of chloramphenicol at 60 mg/kg for 45 days (five koalas), or for a shorter duration (four koalas). All koalas were initially positive for Chlamydia pecorum as determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Plasma chloramphenicol concentrations were determined at t = 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 24 h after the day 1 injection (nine koalas) and after the day 15 injection (seven koalas). Chloramphenicol reached a median (and range) maximum plasma concentration of 3.03 (1.32-5.03 µg/mL) at 4 (1-8 h) after the day 1 injection and 4.82 (1.97-27.55 µg/mL) at 1 (1-2 h) after day 15. The median (and range) of AUC(0-24) on day 1 and day 15 were 48.14 (22.37-81.14 µg·h/mL) and 50.83 (28.43-123.99 µg·h/mL), respectively. The area under the moment curve (AUMC)(0-24) median (and range) for day 1 and day 15 were 530.03 (233.05-798.97 h) and 458.15 (291.72-1093.58 h), respectively. Swabs were positive for chlamydial DNA pretreatment, and all koalas except one, produced swabs negative for chlamydial DNA during treatment and which remained so, for 2-63 days after treatment, however whether chloramphenicol treatment prevented long-term recrudescence of infection was not established. At this dose and dosing frequency, chloramphenicol appeared to control mild chlamydial infection and prevent shedding, but severe urogenital disease did not appear to respond to chloramphenicol at this dosage regime. For koalas affected by severe chlamydiosis, antibiotics alone are not sufficient to effect a cure, possibly because of structural or metabolic changes associated with chronic disease and inflammation.

Within-population diversity of koala Chlamydophila pecorum at ompA VD1-VD3 and the ORF663 hypothetical gene.

Infection of koalas by Chlamydophila pecorum is very common and causes significant morbidity, infertility and mortality. Fundamental to management of the disease is an understanding of the importance of multi-serotype infection or pathogen virulence in pathogenesis; these may need consideration in plans involving koala movement, vaccination, or disease risk assessment. Here we describe diversity of ompA VD1-3, and ORF663 hypothetical gene tandem repeat regions, in a single population of koalas with diverse disease outcomes. We PCR amplified and sequenced 72 partial ompA segments and amplified 25 tandem repeat segments (ORF663 hypothetical gene) from C. pecorum obtained from 62 koalas. Although several ompA genotypes were identified nationally, only one ompA genotype existed within the population studied, indicating that severe chlamydial disease occurs commonly in free-ranging koalas in the absence of infection by multiple MOMP serotypes of C. pecorum. In contrast, variation in tandem repeats within the ORF663 hypothetical gene was very high, approaching the entire range reported for pathogenic and non-pathogenic C. pecorum of European ruminants; providing an impetus for further investigation of this as a potential virulence trait.

Absorption of enrofloxacin and marbofloxacin after oral and subcutaneous administration in diseased koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus).

Koalas (n = 43) were treated daily for up to 8 weeks with enrofloxacin: 10 mg/kg subcutaneously (s.c.), 5 mg/kg s.c., or 20 mg/kg per os (p.o.); or marbofloxacin: 1.0-3.3 mg/kg p.o., 10 mg/kg p.o. or 5 mg/kg s.c. Serial plasma drug concentrations were determined on day 1 and again at approximately 2 weeks, by liquid chromatography. The median (range) plasma maximum concentrations (C(max) ) for enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg s.c. and 10 mg/kg s.c. were 0.83 (0.68-1.52) and 2.08 (1.34-2.96) µg/mL and the median (range) T(max) were 1.5 h (1-2) and 1 h (1-2) respectively. Plasma concentrations of orally dosed marbofloxacin were too low to be quantified. Oral administration of enrofloxacin suggested absorption rate limited disposition pharmacokinetics; the median (range) C(max) for enrofloxacin 20 mg/kg p.o. was 0.94 (0.76-1.0) µg/mL and the median (range) T(max) was 4 h (2-8). Oral absorption of both drugs was poor. Plasma protein binding for enrofloxacin was 55.4 ± 1.9% and marbofloxacin 49.5 ± 5.3%. Elevations in creatinine kinase activity were associated with drug injections. Enrofloxacin and marbofloxacin administered at these dosage and routes are unlikely to inhibit the growth of chlamydial pathogens in vivo.

Histopathological examination of the pancreas of the Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus).

This retrospective study, which was based on koala pancreatic specimens taken 2, 24, 48 and 72h after death, showed that the degree of autolysis did not necessarily exclude histopathological examination. Disorders not previously reported in the pancreas of koalas included the following: inflammation and necrosis; atrophy and fibrosis of exocrine pancreatic tissue; lymphosarcoma; pancreatic heterotopy; and ductal adenocarcinoma.

Immuno-histochemical demonstration of the role of chlamydiaceae in renal, uterine and Salpingeal disease of the koala, and demonstration of chlamydiaceae in novel sites.

Numerous bacteria, including Chlamydophila pecorum and Chlamydophila pneumoniae, are known to occur in diseased sites in koalas. In the present study the significance of such organisms was investigated by demonstrating their distribution in situ, in tissues collected opportunistically from wild koalas. Chlamydiaceae were demonstrated in epithelial cells and macrophages in association with pyogranulomatous pyelonephritis (8/11 kidneys), focal interstitial nephritis (3/21), and active inflammation and fibrosis of the entire upper female reproductive tract (10/10). In one case of pyelonephritis, Gram-positive cocci were also demonstrated in association with Chlamydiaceae and, in another, haematogenous filamentous bacteria appeared to be the sole aetiological agent. Three cases of chlamydial metritis were also superficially co-infected by a mixture of other bacteria. Chlamydiaceae were also demonstrated in pulmonary alveolar macrophages and epithelial cells in association with pneumonitis, and in hepatic and splenic macrophages in one koala. The study illustrated the prominent role of Chlamydiaceae in renal disease and disease of the uterus, uterine tube and ovarian bursa, with implications for pathogenesis and therapy. In addition, macrophages appeared to be a potential site of latent persistence from which systemic spread of infection might occur.

Neural angiostrongylosis in three captive rufous bettongs (Aepyprymnus rufescens).

Neurological disease attributed to migration of the rat lungworm (Angiostrongylus cantonensis), is described in three captive rufous bettongs (Aepyprymnus rufescens). Clinical signs, including ascending paralysis and multifocal neurological deficits, were similar to those seen in other species. Histologically, the severity of meningoencephalomyelitis ranged from mild to moderate. In one animal cerebrospinal fluid contained a high percentage of eosinophils but peripheral blood cell counts were within normal limits. Treatment with dexamethasone, diazepam and vitamin E was unsuccessful. The prognosis for bettongs with this disease is poor. The susceptibility of this species to this disease has implications for enclosure design.

Investigation of the Microbial Ecology of Commercial Grapefruit Sections 1.

Commercially prepared grapefruit sections were qualitatively surveyed for microorganisms prior to heat processing. The micro flora included 7 genera of yeasts ( Candida , Cryptococcus , Hansenula , Rhodotorula , Saccharomyces , Torulaspora , Trichosporon , Zygosaccharomyces ), 12 genera of molds ( Aspergillus , Aureobasidium pullulans , Byssochlamys , Cladosporium , Fonseceae , Fusarium , Geotrichum , Mucor , Penicillium , Rhizopus , Trichoderma , Trichophyton ), and 2 of bacteria ( Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc ). A quantitative analysis of the native microflora indicated that the overall microbial population was capable of significant growth (p ≥ 0.05) at 25°C within 2 to 4 h in the unprocessed product.