Mutation of self-binding sites in the promoter of the MrpC transcriptional regulator leads to asynchronous Myxococcus xanthus development.

Introduction: MrpC, a member of the CRP/Fnr transcription factor superfamily, is necessary to induce and control the multicellular developmental program of the bacterium, Myxococcus xanthus. During development, certain cells in the population first swarm into haystack-shaped aggregates and then differentiate into environmentally resistant spores to form mature fruiting bodies (a specialized biofilm). mrpC transcriptional regulation is controlled by negative autoregulation (NAR). Methods: Wild type and mutant mrpC promoter regions were fused to a fluorescent reporter to examine effects on mrpC expression in the population and in single cells in situ. Phenotypic consequences of the mutant mrpC promoter were assayed by deep convolution neural network analysis of developmental movies, sporulation efficiency assays, and anti-MrpC immunoblot. In situ analysis of single cell MrpC levels in distinct populations were assayed with an MrpC-mNeonGreen reporter. Results: Disruption of MrpC binding sites within the mrpC promoter region led to increased and broadened distribution of mrpC expression levels between individual cells in the population. Expression of mrpC from the mutant promoter led to a striking phenotype in which cells lose synchronized transition from aggregation to sporulation. Instead, some cells abruptly exit aggregation centers and remain locked in a cohesive swarming state we termed developmental swarms, while the remaining cells transition to spores inside residual fruiting bodies. In situ examination of a fluorescent reporter for MrpC levels in developmental subpopulations demonstrated cells locked in the developmental swarms contained MrpC levels that do not reach the levels observed in fruiting bodies. Discussion: Increased cell-to-cell variation in mrpC expression upon disruption of MrpC binding sites within its promoter is consistent with NAR motifs functioning to reducing noise. Noise reduction may be key to synchronized transition of cells in the aggregation state to the sporulation state. We hypothesize a novel subpopulation of cells trapped as developmental swarms arise from intermediate levels of MrpC that are sufficient to promote aggregation but insufficient to trigger sporulation. Failure to transition to higher levels of MrpC necessary to induce sporulation may indicate cells in developmental swarms lack an additional positive feedback signal required to boost MrpC levels.

Transcriptome dynamics of the Myxococcus xanthus multicellular developmental program.

The bacterium Myxococcus xanthus exhibits a complex multicellular life cycle. In the presence of nutrients, cells prey cooperatively. Upon starvation, they enter a developmental cycle wherein cells aggregate to produce macroscopic fruiting bodies filled with resistant myxospores. We used RNA-Seq technology to examine the transcriptome of the 96 hr developmental program. These data revealed that 1415 genes were sequentially expressed in 10 discrete modules, with expression peaking during aggregation, in the transition from aggregation to sporulation, or during sporulation. Analysis of genes expressed at each specific time point provided insights as to how starving cells obtain energy and precursors necessary for assembly of fruiting bodies and into developmental production of secondary metabolites. This study offers the first global view of developmental transcriptional profiles and provides important tools and resources for future studies.

An amino-terminal threonine/serine motif is necessary for activity of the Crp/Fnr homolog, MrpC and for Myxococcus xanthus developmental robustness.

The Crp/Fnr family of transcriptional regulators play central roles in transcriptional control of diverse physiological responses, and are activated by a surprising diversity of mechanisms. MrpC is a Crp/Fnr homolog that controls the Myxococcus xanthus developmental program. A long-standing model proposed that MrpC activity is controlled by the Pkn8/Pkn14 serine/threonine kinase cascade, which phosphorylates MrpC on threonine residue(s) located in its extreme amino-terminus. In this study, we demonstrate that a stretch of consecutive threonine and serine residues, T21 T22 S23 S24, is necessary for MrpC activity by promoting efficient DNA binding. Mass spectrometry analysis indicated the TTSS motif is not directly phosphorylated by Pkn14 in vitro but is necessary for efficient Pkn14-dependent phosphorylation on several residues in the remainder of the protein. In an important correction to a long-standing model, we show Pkn8 and Pkn14 kinase activities do not play obvious roles in controlling MrpC activity in wild-type M. xanthus under laboratory conditions. Instead, we propose Pkn14 modulates MrpC DNA binding in response to unknown environmental conditions. Interestingly, substitutions in the TTSS motif caused developmental defects that varied between biological replicates, revealing that MrpC plays a role in promoting a robust developmental phenotype.

Orphan Hybrid Histidine Protein Kinase SinK Acts as a Signal Integrator To Fine-Tune Multicellular Behavior in Myxococcus xanthus.

His-Asp phosphorelay (also known as two-component signal transduction) proteins are the predominant mechanism used in most bacteria to control behavior in response to changing environmental conditions. In addition to systems consisting of a simple two-component system utilizing an isolated histidine kinase/response regulator pair, some bacteria are enriched in histidine kinases that serve as signal integration proteins; these kinases are usually characterized by noncanonical domain architecture, and the responses that they regulate may be difficult to identify. The environmental bacterium Myxococcus xanthus is highly enriched in these noncanonical histidine kinases. M. xanthus is renowned for a starvation-induced multicellular developmental program in which some cells are induced to aggregate into fruiting bodies and then differentiate into environmentally resistant spores. Here, we characterize the M. xanthus orphan hybrid histidine kinase SinK (Mxan_4465), which consists of a histidine kinase transmitter followed by two receiver domains (REC1 and REC2). Nonphosphorylatable sinK mutants were analyzed under two distinct developmental conditions and using a new high-resolution developmental assay. These assays revealed that SinK autophosphorylation and REC1 impact the onset of aggregation and/or the mobility of aggregates, while REC2 impacts sporulation efficiency. SinK activity is controlled by a genus-specific hypothetical protein (SinM; Mxan_4466). We propose that SinK serves to fine-tune fruiting body morphology in response to environmental conditions.IMPORTANCE Biofilms are multicellular communities of microorganisms that play important roles in host disease or environmental biofouling. Design of preventative strategies to block biofilms depends on understanding the molecular mechanisms used by microorganisms to build them. The production of biofilms in bacteria often involves two-component signal transduction systems in which one protein component (a kinase) detects an environmental signal and, through phosphotransfer, activates a second protein component (a response regulator) to change the transcription of genes necessary to produce a biofilm. We show that an atypical kinase, SinK, modulates several distinct stages of specialized biofilm produced by the environmental bacterium Myxococcus xanthus SinK likely integrates multiple signals to fine-tune biofilm formation in response to distinct environmental conditions.

MrpC, a CRP/Fnr homolog, functions as a negative autoregulator during the Myxococcus xanthus multicellular developmental program.

MrpC, a member of the CRP/Fnr superfamily of transcriptional regulators, plays a key role in coordination of the multicellular developmental program in Myxococcus xanthus. Previous reports suggest MrpC is subject to complex regulation including activation by an unusual LonD-dependent proteolytic processing event that removes its unique N-terminal peptide, producing the isoform MrpC2. MrpC2 is proposed to positively autoregulate and regulate transcription of hundreds of genes necessary for both the aggregation and sporulation phases of the developmental program. We demonstrate here that mrpC expression bifurcates corresponding to different cell populations within the developmental program. During our analysis of regulatory events controlling this process, we demonstrate that MrpC2 is not an active isoform; rather, the N-terminal peptide is instead essential for MrpC function in vivo. We also demonstrate that MrpC is instead a negative autoregulator and represses its own expression by specifically competing with its enhancer binding protein, MrpB. These results provide an additional rare example of CRP/EBP coordinated regulation, and significantly revise the model for control of the central developmental transcriptional activator of the M. xanthus developmental program.

Lessons in Fundamental Mechanisms and Diverse Adaptations from the 2015 Bacterial Locomotion and Signal Transduction Meeting.

In response to rapid changes in their environment, bacteria control a number of processes, including motility, cell division, biofilm formation, and virulence. Research presented in January 2015 at the biennial Bacterial Locomotion and Signal Transduction (BLAST) meeting in Tucson, AZ, illustrates the elegant complexity of the nanoarrays, nanomachines, and networks of interacting proteins that mediate such processes. Studies employing an array of biophysical, genetic, cell biology, and mathematical methods are providing an increasingly detailed understanding of the mechanisms of these systems within well-studied bacteria. Furthermore, comparisons of these processes in diverse bacterial species are providing insight into novel regulatory and functional mechanisms. This review summarizes research presented at the BLAST meeting on these fundamental mechanisms and diverse adaptations, including findings of importance for applications involving bacteria of medical or agricultural relevance.

Synthesis and assembly of a novel glycan layer in Myxococcus xanthus spores.

Myxococcus xanthus is a Gram-negative deltaproteobacterium that has evolved the ability to differentiate into metabolically quiescent spores that are resistant to heat and desiccation. An essential feature of the differentiation processes is the assembly of a rigid, cell wall-like spore coat on the surface of the outer membrane. In this study, we characterize the spore coat composition and describe the machinery necessary for secretion of spore coat material and its subsequent assembly into a stress-bearing matrix. Chemical analyses of isolated spore coat material indicate that the spore coat consists primarily of short 1-4- and 1-3-linked GalNAc polymers that lack significant glycosidic branching and may be connected by glycine peptides. We show that 1-4-linked glucose (Glc) is likely a minor component of the spore coat with the majority of the Glc arising from contamination with extracellular polysaccharides, O-antigen, or storage compounds. Neither of these structures is required for the formation of resistant spores. Our analyses indicate the GalNAc/Glc polymer and glycine are exported by the ExoA-I system, a Wzy-like polysaccharide synthesis and export machinery. Arrangement of the capsular-like polysaccharides into a rigid spore coat requires the NfsA-H proteins, members of which reside in either the cytoplasmic membrane (NfsD, -E, and -G) or outer membrane (NfsA, -B, and -C). The Nfs proteins function together to modulate the chain length of the surface polysaccharides, which is apparently necessary for their assembly into a stress-bearing matrix.

Intra- and interprotein phosphorylation between two-hybrid histidine kinases controls Myxococcus xanthus developmental progression.

Histidine-aspartate phosphorelay signaling systems are used to couple stimuli to cellular responses. A hallmark feature is the highly modular signal transmission modules that can form both simple "two-component" systems and sophisticated multicomponent systems that integrate stimuli over time and space to generate coordinated and fine-tuned responses. The deltaproteobacterium Myxococcus xanthus contains a large repertoire of signaling proteins, many of which regulate its multicellular developmental program. Here, we assign an orphan hybrid histidine protein kinase, EspC, to the Esp signaling system that negatively regulates progression through the M. xanthus developmental program. The Esp signal system consists of the hybrid histidine protein kinase, EspA, two serine/threonine protein kinases, and a putative transport protein. We demonstrate that EspC is an essential component of this system because ΔespA, ΔespC, and ΔespA ΔespC double mutants share an identical developmental phenotype. Neither substitution of the phosphoaccepting histidine residue nor deletion of the entire catalytic ATPase domain in EspC produces an in vivo mutant developmental phenotype. In contrast, substitution of the receiver phosphoaccepting residue yields the null phenotype. Although the EspC histidine kinase can efficiently autophosphorylate in vitro, it does not act as a phosphodonor to its own receiver domain. Our in vitro and in vivo analyses suggest the phosphodonor is instead the EspA histidine kinase. We propose EspA and EspC participate in a novel hybrid histidine protein kinase signaling mechanism involving both inter- and intraprotein phosphotransfer. The output of this signaling system appears to be the combined phosphorylated state of the EspA and EspC receiver modules. This system regulates the proteolytic turnover of MrpC, an important regulator of the developmental program.

Myxococcus xanthus developmental cell fate production: heterogeneous accumulation of developmental regulatory proteins and reexamination of the role of MazF in developmental lysis.

Myxococcus xanthus undergoes a starvation-induced multicellular developmental program during which cells partition into three known fates: (i) aggregation into fruiting bodies followed by differentiation into spores, (ii) lysis, or (iii) differentiation into nonaggregating persister-like cells, termed peripheral rods. As a first step to characterize cell fate segregation, we enumerated total, aggregating, and nonaggregating cells throughout the developmental program. We demonstrate that both cell lysis and cell aggregation begin with similar timing at approximately 24 h after induction of development. Examination of several known regulatory proteins in the separated aggregated and nonaggregated cell fractions revealed previously unknown heterogeneity in the accumulation patterns of proteins involved in type IV pilus (T4P)-mediated motility (PilC and PilA) and regulation of development (MrpC, FruA, and C-signal). As part of our characterization of the cell lysis fate, we set out to investigate the unorthodox MazF-MrpC toxin-antitoxin system which was previously proposed to induce programmed cell death (PCD). We demonstrate that deletion of mazF in two different wild-type M. xanthus laboratory strains does not significantly reduce developmental cell lysis, suggesting that MazF's role in promoting PCD is an adaption to the mutant background strain used previously.

Spore formation in Myxococcus xanthus is tied to cytoskeleton functions and polysaccharide spore coat deposition.

Myxococcus xanthus is a Gram-negative bacterium that differentiates into environmentally resistant spores. Spore differentiation involves septation-independent remodelling of the rod-shaped vegetative cell into a spherical spore and deposition of a thick and compact spore coat outside of the outer membrane. Our analyses suggest that spore coat polysaccharides are exported to the cell surface by the Exo outer membrane polysaccharide export/polysaccharide co-polymerase 2a (OPX/PCP-2a) machinery. Conversion of the capsule-like polysaccharide layer into a compact spore coat layer requires the Nfs proteins which likely form a complex in the cell envelope. Mutants in either nfs, exo or two other genetic loci encoding homologues of polysaccharide synthesis enzymes fail to complete morphogenesis from rods to spherical spores and instead produce a transient state of deformed cell morphology before reversion into typical rods. We additionally provide evidence that the cell cytoskeletal protein, MreB, plays an important role in rod to spore morphogenesis and for spore outgrowth. These studies provide evidence that this novel Gram-negative differentiation process is tied to cytoskeleton functions and polysaccharide spore coat deposition.

The Myxococcus xanthus spore cuticula protein C is a fragment of FibA, an extracellular metalloprotease produced exclusively in aggregated cells.

Myxococcus xanthus is a soil bacterium with a complex life cycle involving distinct cell fates, including production of environmentally resistant spores to withstand periods of nutrient limitation. Spores are surrounded by an apparently self-assembling cuticula containing at least Proteins S and C; the gene encoding Protein C is unknown. During analyses of cell heterogeneity in M. xanthus, we observed that Protein C accumulated exclusively in cells found in aggregates. Using mass spectrometry analysis of Protein C either isolated from spore cuticula or immunoprecipitated from aggregated cells, we demonstrate that Protein C is actually a proteolytic fragment of the previously identified but functionally elusive zinc metalloprotease, FibA. Subpopulation specific FibA accumulation is not due to transcriptional regulation suggesting post-transcriptional regulation mechanisms mediate its heterogeneous accumulation patterns.

Two-component systems and regulation of developmental progression in Myxococcus xanthus.

Myxococcus xanthus is a prokaryotic model system for multicellular development and cell differentiation. Two-component signal transduction genes are abundant in this organism and the majority is likely organized into complex signaling pathways. This chapter describes in vivo genetic and in vitro biochemical methods used to define signal transduction systems in M. xanthus. We also describe a series of phenotypic analyses utilized to define how a specific set of atypical histidine kinases (HKs) influence progression through the complex developmental program.

Global transcriptome analysis of spore formation in Myxococcus xanthus reveals a locus necessary for cell differentiation.

BACKGROUND: Myxococcus xanthus is a Gram negative bacterium that can differentiate into metabolically quiescent, environmentally resistant spores. Little is known about the mechanisms involved in differentiation in part because sporulation is normally initiated at the culmination of a complex starvation-induced developmental program and only inside multicellular fruiting bodies. To obtain a broad overview of the sporulation process and to identify novel genes necessary for differentiation, we instead performed global transcriptome analysis of an artificial chemically-induced sporulation process in which addition of glycerol to vegetatively growing liquid cultures of M. xanthus leads to rapid and synchronized differentiation of nearly all cells into myxospore-like entities. RESULTS: Our analyses identified 1 486 genes whose expression was significantly regulated at least two-fold within four hours of chemical-induced differentiation. Most of the previously identified sporulation marker genes were significantly upregulated. In contrast, most genes that are required to build starvation-induced multicellular fruiting bodies, but which are not required for sporulation per se, were not significantly regulated in our analysis. Analysis of functional gene categories significantly over-represented in the regulated genes, suggested large rearrangements in core metabolic pathways, and in genes involved in protein synthesis and fate. We used the microarray data to identify a novel operon of eight genes that, when mutated, rendered cells unable to produce viable chemical- or starvation-induced spores. Importantly, these mutants displayed no defects in building fruiting bodies, suggesting these genes are necessary for the core sporulation process. Furthermore, during the starvation-induced developmental program, these genes were expressed in fruiting bodies but not in peripheral rods, a subpopulation of developing cells which do not sporulate. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that microarray analysis of chemical-induced spore formation is an excellent system to specifically identify genes necessary for the core sporulation process of a Gram negative model organism for differentiation.

A novel "four-component" two-component signal transduction mechanism regulates developmental progression in Myxococcus xanthus.

Histidine-aspartate phosphorelays are employed by two-component signal transduction family proteins to mediate responses to specific signals or stimuli in microorganisms and plants. The RedCDEF proteins constitute a novel signaling system in which four two-component proteins comprising a histidine kinase, a histidine-kinase like protein, and two response regulators function together to regulate progression through the elaborate developmental program of Myxococcus xanthus. A combination of in vivo phenotypic analyses of in-frame deletions and non-functional point mutations in each gene as well as in vitro autophosphorylation and phosphotransfer analyses of recombinant proteins indicate that the RedC histidine kinase protein autophosphorylates and donates a phosphoryl group to the single domain response regulator, RedF, to repress progression through the developmental program. To relieve this developmental repression, RedC instead phosphorylates RedD, a dual receiver response regulator protein. Surprisingly, RedD transfers the phosphoryl group to the histidine kinase-like protein RedE, which itself appears to be incapable of autophosphorylation. Phosphorylation of RedE may render RedE accessible to RedF, where it removes the phosphoryl group from RedF-P, which is otherwise an unusually stable phosphoprotein. These analyses reveal a novel "four-component" signaling mechanism that has probably arisen to temporally coordinate signals controlling the developmental program in M. xanthus. The RedCDEF signaling system provides an important example of how the inherent plasticity and modularity of the basic two-component signaling domains comprise a highly adaptable framework well suited to expansion into complex signaling mechanisms.

EspA, an orphan hybrid histidine protein kinase, regulates the timing of expression of key developmental proteins of Myxococcus xanthus.

Myxococcus xanthus undergoes a complex starvation-induced developmental program that results in cells forming multicellular fruiting bodies by aggregating into mounds and then differentiating into spores. This developmental program requires at least 72 h and is mediated by a temporal cascade of gene regulators in response to intra- and extracellular signals. espA mutants, encoding an orphan hybrid histidine kinase, alter the timing of this developmental program, greatly accelerating developmental progression. Here, we characterized EspA and demonstrated that it autophosphorylates in vitro on the conserved histidine residue and then transfers the phosphoryl group to the conserved aspartate residue in the associated receiver domain. The conserved histidine and aspartate residues were both required for EspA function in vivo. Analysis of developmental gene expression and protein accumulation in espA mutants indicated that the expression of the A-signal-dependent spi gene was not affected but that the MrpC transcriptional regulator accumulated earlier, resulting in earlier expression of its target, the FruA transcriptional regulator. Early expression of FruA correlated with acceleration of both the aggregation and sporulation branches of the developmental program, as monitored by early methylation of the FrzCD chemosensory receptor and early expression of the sporulation-specific dev and Mxan_3227 (Omega7536) genes. These results show that EspA plays a key role in the timing of expression of genes necessary for progression of cells through the developmental program.

Two Ser/Thr protein kinases essential for efficient aggregation and spore morphogenesis in Myxococcus xanthus.

Myxococcus xanthus has a complex life cycle that involves vegetative growth and development. Previously, we described the espAB locus that is involved in timing events during the initial stages of fruiting body formation. Deletion of espA caused early aggregation and sporulation, whereas deletion of espB caused delayed aggregation and sporulation resulting in reduced spore yields. In this study, we describe two genes, pktA5 and pktB8, that flank the espAB locus and encode Ser/Thr protein kinase (STPK) homologues. Cells deficient in pktA5 or pktB8 formed translucent mounds and produced low spore yields, similar in many respects to espB mutants. Double mutant analysis revealed that espA was epistatic to pktA5 and pktB8 with respect to aggregation and fruiting body morphology, but that pktA5 and pktB8 were epistatic to espA with respect to sporulation efficiency. Expression profiles of pktA5-lacZ and pktB8-lacZ fusions and Western blot analysis showed that the STPKs are expressed under vegetative and developmental conditions. In vitro kinase assays demonstrated that the RD kinase, PktA5, autophosphorylated on threonine residue(s) and phosphorylated the artificial substrate, myelin basic protein. In contrast, autophosphorylation of the non-RD kinase, PktB8, was not observed in vitro; however, the phenotype of a pktB8 kinase-dead point mutant resembled the pktB8 deletion mutant, indicating that this residue was important for function and that it likely functions as a kinase in vivo. Immunoprecipitation of Tap-tagged PktA5 and PktB8 revealed an interaction with EspA during development in M. xanthus. These results, taken together, suggest that PktA5 and PktB8 are STPKs that function during development by interacting with EspA and EspB to regulate M. xanthus development.

Four unusual two-component signal transduction homologs, RedC to RedF, are necessary for timely development in Myxococcus xanthus.

We identified a cluster of four two-component signal transduction genes that are necessary for proper progression of Myxococcus xanthus through development. redC to redF mutants developed and sporulated early, resulting in small, numerous, and disorganized fruiting bodies. Yeast two-hybrid analyses suggest that RedCDEF act in a single signaling pathway. The previously identified espA gene displays a phenotype similar to that of redCDEF. However, combined mutants defective in espA redCDEF exhibited a striking additive developmental phenotype, suggesting that EspA and RedC to RedF play independent roles in controlling developmental progression.

EspC is involved in controlling the timing of development in Myxococcus xanthus.

The espC null mutation caused accelerated aggregation and formation of tiny fruiting bodies surrounded by spores, which were also observed in the espA mutant and in CsgA-overproducing cells in Myxococcus xanthus. In addition, the espC mutant appeared to produce larger amounts of the complementary C-signal than the wild-type strain. These findings suggest that EspC is involved in controlling the timing of fruiting body development in M. xanthus.

Quantification of known components of the Escherichia coli TonB energy transduction system: TonB, ExbB, ExbD and FepA.

The TonB-dependent energy transduction system couples cytoplasmic membrane proton motive force to active transport of iron-siderophore complexes across the outer membrane in Gram-negative bacteria. In Escherichia coli, the primary players known in this process to date are: FepA, the TonB-gated transporter for the siderophore enterochelin; TonB, the energy-transducing protein; and two cytoplasmic membrane proteins with less defined roles, ExbB and ExbD. In this study, we report the per cell numbers of TonB, ExbB, ExbD and FepA for cells grown under iron-replete and iron-limited conditions. Under iron-replete conditions, TonB and FepA were present at 335 +/- 78 and 504 +/- 165 copies per cell respectively. ExbB and ExbD, despite being encoded from the same operon, were not equimolar, being present at 2463 +/- 522 and 741 +/- 105 copies respectively. The ratio of these proteins was calculated at one TonB:two ExbD:seven ExbB under all four growth conditions tested. In contrast, the TonB:FepA ratio varied with iron status and according to the method used for iron limitation. Differences in the method of iron limitation also resulted in significant differences in cell size, skewing the per cell copy numbers for all proteins.

TonB interacts with nonreceptor proteins in the outer membrane of Escherichia coli.

The Escherichia coli TonB protein serves to couple the cytoplasmic membrane proton motive force to active transport of iron-siderophore complexes and vitamin B(12) across the outer membrane. Consistent with this role, TonB has been demonstrated to participate in strong interactions with both the cytoplasmic and outer membranes. The cytoplasmic membrane determinants for that interaction have been previously characterized in some detail. Here we begin to examine the nature of TonB interactions with the outer membrane. Although the presence of the siderophore enterochelin (also known as enterobactin) greatly enhanced detectable cross-linking between TonB and the outer membrane receptor, FepA, the absence of enterochelin did not prevent the localization of TonB to the outer membrane. Furthermore, the absence of FepA or indeed of all the iron-responsive outer membrane receptors did not alter this association of TonB with the outer membrane. This suggested that TonB interactions with the outer membrane were not limited to the TonB-dependent outer membrane receptors. Hydrolysis of the murein layer with lysozyme did not alter the distribution of TonB, suggesting that peptidoglycan was not responsible for the outer membrane association of TonB. Conversely, the interaction of TonB with the outer membrane was disrupted by the addition of 4 M NaCl, suggesting that these interactions were proteinaceous. Subsequently, two additional contacts of TonB with the outer membrane proteins Lpp and, putatively, OmpA were identified by in vivo cross-linking. These contacts corresponded to the 43-kDa and part of the 77-kDa TonB-specific complexes described previously. Surprisingly, mutations in these proteins individually did not appear to affect TonB phenotypes. These results suggest that there may be multiple redundant sites where TonB can interact with the outer membrane prior to transducing energy to the outer membrane receptors.