Iconography and provenance of versals in De humani corporis fabrica: Vesalius/Kalkar.

The most well known feature of Vesalius' De humani corporis fabrica (1543) are the ecorches (Fr. flayed human body) striding in the environs of Padua, Italy. These illustrations are the apex of an unsurpassed achievement in anatomical illustration. Not as obvious, striking or well known and oft neglected are the versals (the ornate capital letters at the beginning of a paragraph) in De fabrica. Not as well crafted, artistically, as the ecorches the versals transcend the realm of anatomy and science into mythological and iconographic interpretation. Did Vesalius have the artistic talent and was well versed in humanities to execute such ecorches and meaningful versals? Almost certainly there were other artists involved, well versed in art and humanities--more probably Johannes Stephanus Kalkar (c. 1499-1546).

Michelangelo's Apollo and pathos: an anatomical and anthropometric interpretation.

Michelangelo was a complex personality with strong conflicting emotions. Most prevalent, in both his life and subsequently his work, were the contrasting feelings of grandeur (Apollo) and pathos. He used his extensive knowledge of anatomy to convey expressions of justice, power and awe in works like David, Moses, and Christ in the Last Judgment. In his more mature years he gravitates to works depicting suffering (pathos) and the physical decline of the human body as seen in the captives for the tomb of Pope Julius II and the female subjects in the Medici Chapel. The Renaissance belief in humanism, influenced by the study of antiquity, put man at the centre of the universe. Michelangelo, more than any other artist of the time, was an ardent exponent of this trend. His interest in the human body, though paramount, ranged far beyond the mere depiction of anatomical details or naturalism in art. The human body, which no artist since the ancient Greeks held in such high esteem, was the vehicle through which he sought to portray the inner life of the spirit. He was more interested in the universal spirit shining through the individual. It is this quality that enables him to speak to us across the boundaries of time and space. He never says, "I want you to recognize this man." Instead, he says, "I want you to recognize yourself and through yourself all mankind". Some of the outward manifestations of the life of the spirit were, to Michelangelo and to men of his time, beauty, justice, noble courage and awe-inspiring righteousness. It is not surprising, therefore, that two of the most important themes expressed in his art are Apollo (beauty and justice) and pathos (the spiritual struggle of man on earth) and that the sole form he deemed appropriate for embodiment of these lofty ideas was the human nude.

Michelangelo: anatomy and its implication in his art.

Michelangelo's major interest was the Life of the Soul as expressed in the beautiful structure and movement of the human body, which he often called the "mortal veil" of the divine intentions. This study ascertains Michelangelo's interest in and acquisition of the knowledge of human anatomy, the use of small anatomical models to crystallize his concepts into reality and the application of anatomy to his art. Relatively little is known of this interaction between anatomy and art in Michelangelo's life and work.

The transmission of masticatory forces and nasal septum: structural comparison of the human skull and Gothic cathedral.

This study extrapolates the transmission of masticatory forces to the cranium based on the architectural principles of Gothic cathedrals. The most significant finding of the study, obtained by analysis of coronal CT scans, is the role of the hard palate, and especially the vomer and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid in masticatory force transmission. The study also confirms, experimentally, the paths of masticatory forces, cited in literature but based purely on morphological observations. Human skulls and Gothic cathedrals have similar morphological and functional characteristics. The load exerted by the roof of the cathedral is transmitted to the ground by piers and buttresses. These structures also resist the shearing forces exerted by high winds. Similarly, the mid-facial bones of the skull transmit the vertical as well as the lateral masticatory forces from the maxillary dentition to the skull base. The nonload bearing walls and stained glass windows of the cathedral correspond to the translucent wall of the maxilla. The passageway between the aisle and the nave of the cathedral is equivalent to the meatal openings in the lateral wall of the nasal cavity.

Leonardo da Vinci, visual perspective and the crystalline sphere (lens): if only Leonardo had had a freezer.

This study confirms Leonardo's claim to have experimented on the bovine eye to determine the internal anatomy of the eye. The experiment, as described by Leonardo, was repeated in our laboratory. The study further discusses Leonardo's primary interest in the study of the eye (especially the lens), to determine how the image of an object which enters the eye in an inverted form is righted. The study shows the evolution of Leonardo's understanding of the anatomy and the physiology of vision. Initially, in keeping with his reading of the literature, the lens was placed in the centre but he made it globular. Later he promulgated two theories, reflection from the uvea and refraction within the lens to explain reversal of the image in the eye. Subsequently he rejected the first theory and, putting credence in the second theory, experimented (1509) to show that the lens is globular and is centrally placed. The fact that the present knowledge about the lens is at variance from his findings is not because he did not carry out the experiment, as suggested by some modern authors, but because of the limitation of the techniques available to him at the time.