Correction: Implementation of Genomic Surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in the Caribbean: Lessons learned for sustainability in resource-limited settings.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0001455.].

Implementation of genomic surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in the Caribbean: Lessons learned for sustainability in resource-limited settings.

The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance of global genomic surveillance to monitor the emergence and spread of SARS-CoV-2 variants and inform public health decision-making. Until December 2020 there was minimal capacity for viral genomic surveillance in most Caribbean countries. To overcome this constraint, the COVID-19: Infectious disease Molecular epidemiology for PAthogen Control & Tracking (COVID-19 IMPACT) project was implemented to establish rapid SARS-CoV-2 whole genome nanopore sequencing at The University of the West Indies (UWI) in Trinidad and Tobago (T&T) and provide needed SARS-CoV-2 sequencing services for T&T and other Caribbean Public Health Agency Member States (CMS). Using the Oxford Nanopore Technologies MinION sequencing platform and ARTIC network sequencing protocols and bioinformatics pipeline, a total of 3610 SARS-CoV-2 positive RNA samples, received from 17 CMS, were sequenced in-situ during the period December 5th 2020 to December 31st 2021. Ninety-one Pango lineages, including those of five variants of concern (VOC), were identified. Genetic analysis revealed at least 260 introductions to the CMS from other global regions. For each of the 17 CMS, the percentage of reported COVID-19 cases sequenced by the COVID-19 IMPACT laboratory ranged from 0·02% to 3·80% (median = 1·12%). Sequences submitted to GISAID by our study represented 73·3% of all SARS-CoV-2 sequences from the 17 CMS available on the database up to December 31st 2021. Increased staffing, process and infrastructural improvement over the course of the project helped reduce turnaround times for reporting to originating institutions and sequence uploads to GISAID. Insights from our genomic surveillance network in the Caribbean region directly influenced non-pharmaceutical countermeasures in the CMS countries. However, limited availability of associated surveillance and clinical data made it challenging to contextualise the observed SARS-CoV-2 diversity and evolution, highlighting the need for development of infrastructure for collecting and integrating genomic sequencing data and sample-associated metadata.

A Chart Review Study of Sexually Transmitted Infections Among Persons Living with HIV Attending an STI Clinic in Trinidad.

A chart review study of the sexually transmitted infection (STI) prevalence among persons living with HIV (PLHIV) was conducted among STI clinic attendees in Trinidad between January 2012 and December 2012. Data were abstracted from client records to obtain the clinical and the laboratory diagnoses of STIs. Descriptive and bivariate analyses were conducted, and factors significantly associated with the presence of a STI were assessed using multiple logistic regression. During this period, 385 PLHIV were seen; 104 (27.0%) were newly HIV diagnosed and 281 (73.0%) had a known history of HIV infection; 135 (35.1%) were diagnosed with a STI. Patients with known HIV infection were more likely to be diagnosed with a STI than those who were newly diagnosed (odds ratios: 6.99; 95% confidence interval: 3.79-12.89). The STI prevalence was high among PLHIV in Trinidad, identifying them as a critical target group for public health interventions to prevent the spread of HIV and STIs.

Co-developing climate services for public health: Stakeholder needs and perceptions for the prevention and control of Aedes-transmitted diseases in the Caribbean.

BACKGROUND: Small island developing states (SIDS) in the Caribbean region are challenged with managing the health outcomes of a changing climate. Health and climate sectors have partnered to co-develop climate services to improve the management of emerging arboviral diseases such as dengue fever, for example, through the development of climate-driven early warning systems. The objective of this study was to identify health and climate stakeholder perceptions and needs in the Caribbean, with respect to the development of climate services for arboviruses. METHODS: Stakeholders included public decision makers and practitioners from the climate and health sectors at the regional (Caribbean) level and from the countries of Dominica and Barbados. From April to June 2017, we conducted interviews (n = 41), surveys (n = 32), and national workshops with stakeholders. Survey responses were tabulated, and audio recordings were transcribed and analyzed using qualitative coding to identify responses by research topic, country/region, and sector. RESULTS: Health practitioners indicated that their jurisdiction is currently experiencing an increased risk of arboviral diseases associated with climate variability, and most anticipated that this risk will increase in the future. National health sectors reported financial limitations and a lack of technical expertise in geographic information systems (GIS), statistics, and modeling, which constrained their ability to implement climate services for arboviruses. National climate sectors were constrained by a lack of personnel. Stakeholders highlighted the need to strengthen partnerships with the private sector, academia, and civil society. They identified a gap in local research on climate-arbovirus linkages, which constrained the ability of the health sector to make informed decisions. Strategies to strengthen the climate-health partnership included a top-down approach by engaging senior leadership, multi-lateral collaboration agreements, national committees on climate and health, and shared spaces of dialogue. Mechanisms for mainstreaming climate services for health operations to control arboviruses included climatic-health bulletins and an online GIS platform that would allow for regional data sharing and the generation of spatiotemporal epidemic forecasts. Stakeholders identified a 3-month forecast of arboviral illness as the optimal time frame for an epidemic forecast. CONCLUSIONS: These findings support the creation of interdisciplinary and intersectoral 'communities of practice' and the co-design of climate services for the Caribbean public health sector. By fostering the effective use of climate information within health policy, research and practice, nations will have greater capacity to adapt to a changing climate.

Implementation and outcomes of a patient tracing programme for HIV in Trinidad and Tobago.

A patient tracing programme was implemented at an HIV clinic in Trinidad and Tobago to address the problem of defaulters from HIV care and non-adherence to antiretroviral treatment (ART). The study objective was to evaluate the implementation and outcomes of this programme conducted between April and September 2017. Using patient tracing contact methods, trained social workers attempted to contact 1058 patients lost to follow up (LTFU) between July 2016 and March 2017. Of the 1058 LTFU, 192 were ineligible: 27 (2.5%) were transferred to another clinic, 64 (6%) deceased, 35 (3.3%) hospitalised, 50 (4.7%) migrated and 16 (1.5%) incarcerated. Of the 866 eligible patients for patient tracing, 277 (32%) remained permanently LTFU and 589 (68%) were successfully contacted, re-engaged in care and received adherence counselling. Of the 589 who returned to care, 507 (86%) restarted ART. The three most common barriers reported among the 589 who were reengaged were 'forgetting their appointments' (20%), 'being too busy/work' (16%), and 'not wanting to be seen attending the HIV clinic' (12%). The study findings demonstrated the tracing programme as feasible for re-engaging those who are LTFU and highlighted barriers that can be addressed to further improve retention in HIV care among people living with HIV.

Nonlinear and delayed impacts of climate on dengue risk in Barbados: A modelling study.

BACKGROUND: Over the last 5 years (2013-2017), the Caribbean region has faced an unprecedented crisis of co-occurring epidemics of febrile illness due to arboviruses transmitted by the Aedes sp. mosquito (dengue, chikungunya, and Zika). Since 2013, the Caribbean island of Barbados has experienced 3 dengue outbreaks, 1 chikungunya outbreak, and 1 Zika fever outbreak. Prior studies have demonstrated that climate variability influences arbovirus transmission and vector population dynamics in the region, indicating the potential to develop public health interventions using climate information. The aim of this study is to quantify the nonlinear and delayed effects of climate indicators, such as drought and extreme rainfall, on dengue risk in Barbados from 1999 to 2016. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Distributed lag nonlinear models (DLNMs) coupled with a hierarchal mixed-model framework were used to understand the exposure-lag-response association between dengue relative risk and key climate indicators, including the standardised precipitation index (SPI) and minimum temperature (Tmin). The model parameters were estimated in a Bayesian framework to produce probabilistic predictions of exceeding an island-specific outbreak threshold. The ability of the model to successfully detect outbreaks was assessed and compared to a baseline model, representative of standard dengue surveillance practice. Drought conditions were found to positively influence dengue relative risk at long lead times of up to 5 months, while excess rainfall increased the risk at shorter lead times between 1 and 2 months. The SPI averaged over a 6-month period (SPI-6), designed to monitor drought and extreme rainfall, better explained variations in dengue risk than monthly precipitation data measured in millimetres. Tmin was found to be a better predictor than mean and maximum temperature. Furthermore, including bidimensional exposure-lag-response functions of these indicators-rather than linear effects for individual lags-more appropriately described the climate-disease associations than traditional modelling approaches. In prediction mode, the model was successfully able to distinguish outbreaks from nonoutbreaks for most years, with an overall proportion of correct predictions (hits and correct rejections) of 86% (81%:91%) compared with 64% (58%:71%) for the baseline model. The ability of the model to predict dengue outbreaks in recent years was complicated by the lack of data on the emergence of new arboviruses, including chikungunya and Zika. CONCLUSION: We present a modelling approach to infer the risk of dengue outbreaks given the cumulative effect of climate variations in the months leading up to an outbreak. By combining the dengue prediction model with climate indicators, which are routinely monitored and forecasted by the Regional Climate Centre (RCC) at the Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology (CIMH), probabilistic dengue outlooks could be included in the Caribbean Health-Climatic Bulletin, issued on a quarterly basis to provide climate-smart decision-making guidance for Caribbean health practitioners. This flexible modelling approach could be extended to model the risk of dengue and other arboviruses in the Caribbean region.

Prolonged Zika virus viremia in a patient with Guillain-Barré syndrome in Trinidad and Tobago.

An emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus, Zika virus (ZIKV) is a significant public health concern because of the syndromes associated with the infection. In addition, ZIKV is considered a major problem due to large-scale spread of the disease and the possible clinical complications for the central nervous system, especially Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) and microcephaly. Since the introduction of ZIKV in the Caribbean, molecular detection of the viral RNA has been utilized as a more specific and sensitive approach to demonstrating acute infection. However, it is generally accepted that the virus has a short viremic period, generally less than 5 days. Serologic testing has the inconvenience of strong cross-reactivity among flaviviruses, such as dengue and yellow fever. As part of the laboratory surveillance activities for Zika and other arboviruses at the Caribbean Public Health Agency, in 2016 a sample from a male who was clinically diagnosed with GBS tested positive for Zika virus by real-time polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). The serum sample had been taken on day 21 after the onset of symptoms. The case had initially been characterized as a typical ZIKV infection (mild fever with a generalized maculopapular rash). Later, weakness of limbs and other peripheral neurological symptoms appeared. Enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) showed that the sample was negative for IgM antibodies against Zika, Chikungunya, and dengue viruses. The plaque reduction neutralization test was positive for ZIKV. This indicated parallel development of viremia and immune response against ZIKV. Recent reports have demonstrated a longer duration of the viremia in ZIKV infections. However, our report is the first one that links the infection with extended viremia and the development in parallel of a GBS case.

Prolonged Zika virus viremia in a patient with Guillain-Barré syndrome in Trinidad and Tobago

An emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus, Zika virus (ZIKV) is a significant public health concern because of the syndromes associated with the infection. In addition, ZIKV is considered a major problem due to large-scale spread of the disease and the possible clinical complications for the central nervous system, especially Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) and microcephaly. Since the introduction of ZIKV in the Caribbean, molecular detection of the viral RNA has been utilized as a more specific and sensitive approach to demonstrating acute infection. However, it is generally accepted that the virus has a short viremic period, generally less than 5 days. Serologic testing has the inconvenience of strong cross-reactivity among flaviviruses, such as dengue and yellow fever. As part of the laboratory surveillance activities for Zika and other arboviruses at the Caribbean Public Health Agency, in 2016 a sample from a male who was clinically diagnosed with GBS tested positive for Zika virus by real-time polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). The serum sample had been taken on day 21 after the onset of symptoms. The case had initially been characterized as a typical ZIKV infection (mild fever with a generalized maculopapular rash). Later, weakness of limbs and other peripheral neurological symptoms appeared. Enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) showed that the sample was negative for IgM antibodies against Zika, Chikungunya, and dengue viruses. The plaque reduction neutralization test was positive for ZIKV. This indicated parallel development of viremia and immune response against ZIKV. Recent reports have demonstrated a longer duration of the viremia in ZIKV infections. However, our report is the first one that links the infection with extended viremia and the development in parallel of a GBS case.

El virus del Zika (ZIKV), un flavivirus emergente transmitido por mosquitos, es una inquietud importante en el ámbito de la salud pública por los síndromes asociados con la infección. Además, el ZIKV se considera un problema acuciante debido a la propagación a gran escala de la enfermedad y a las posibles complicaciones clínicas en el sistema nervioso central, en concreto, el síndrome de Guillain-Barré y la microcefalia. Desde que el ZIKV se introdujera en el Caribe, la detección molecular del ARN viral ha sido el método más específico y sensible utilizado para comprobar una infección aguda. Sin embargo, se cree que el virus tiene un período virémico corto, de menos de 5 días en general. La prueba serológica presenta el inconveniente de la fuerte reactividad cruzada entre los flavivirus, como el dengue y la fiebre amarilla. Como parte de las actividades de vigilancia de laboratorio para el Zika y otros arbovirus del Agencia Caribena de Salud Publica, en el 2016 la muestra de un hombre diagnosticado con la enfermedad de Guillain Barré dio positiva para el virus del Zika por medio de una reacción en cadena de la polimerasa en tiempo real (rRT-RCP). La muestra de suero se había tomado en el día 21 después de la aparición de los síntomas. En un principio, el caso se calificó como una infección por ZIKV típica (fiebre leve con una erupción maculopapular generalizada). Posteriormente, apareció la debilidad de los miembros y otros síntomas neurológicos periféricos. La prueba de inmunoadsorción enzimática (ELISA) fue negativa para los anticuerpos de tipo IgM contra los virus del Zika, el chikunguña y el dengue. La prueba de neutralización por reducción del número de placas dio positivo para el ZIKV, lo que probó que paralelamente se había desarrollado una respuesta virémica e inmune contra el ZIKV. En informes recientes se ha demostrado que en las infecciones de ZIKV el periodo virémico es más largo. Sin embargo, nuestro informe es de los primeros que relaciona un periodo virémico prolongado con el desarrollo paralelo del síndrome de Guillain-Barré.

O vírus zika é um flavivírus emergente transmitido por mosquitos e tem sido motivo de grande preocupação em saúde pública por causa das síndromes associadas à infecção. É também considerado um importante problema devido à propagação em grande escala e possíveis complicações clínicas no sistema nervoso central decorrentes da infecção, sobretudo síndrome de Guillain-Barré e microcefalia. Desde a introdução do vírus zika no Caribe, a detecção molecular do RNA viral tem sido usada como método mais específico e sensível para demonstrar infecção aguda. Porém, admite-se em geral que o vírus tem um curto período virêmico, inferior a 5 dias. O teste sorológico tem o inconveniente de produzir intensa reação cruzada com outros flavivírus, como os vírus da dengue e febre amarela. Como parte da vigilância laboratorial do vírus zika e outros arbovírus pela Agência de Saúde Pública do Caribe, em 2016, foi examinada uma amostra de um paciente do sexo masculino com diagnóstico clínico de síndrome de Guillain-Barré e o resultado foi positivo para o vírus zika com a técnica de reação em cadeia da polimerase em tempo real. A amostra sérica havia sido coletada no dia 21 após o início dos sintomas. O caso foi inicialmente descrito como infecção típica pelo vírus zika (febre baixa com erupção cutânea maculopapular generalizada) e, posteriormente, o paciente apresentou fraqueza dos membros e outros sintomas neurológicos periféricos. A amostra foi testada com a técnica de imunoensaio enzimático (ELISA) e foi negativa para anticorpos da classe IgM contra o zika vírus, vírus chikungunya e vírus da dengue. O teste de neutralização por redução de placas foi positivo para o vírus zika, indicando aumento em paralelo da viremia e resposta imunológica ao vírus. Informes recentes têm demonstrado viremia de duração mais prolongada em infecções por vírus zika. Porém, este é o primeiro relato que associa a infecção com viremia prolongada ao surgimento em paralelo da síndrome de Guillain-Barré.

The History of Rabies in Trinidad: Epidemiology and Control Measures.

Vampire bat-transmitted rabies was first recognized in Trinidad during a major outbreak reported in 1925. Trinidad is the only Caribbean island with vampire bat-transmitted rabies. We conducted a literature review to describe the changing epidemiology of rabies in Trinidad and give a historical perspective to rabies prevention and control measures on the island. The last human case of rabies occurred in 1937 and although no case of canine-transmitted rabies was reported since 1914, sporadic outbreaks of bat-transmitted rabies still occur in livestock to date. Over the last century, seven notable epidemics were recorded in Trinidad with the loss of over 3000 animals. During the 1950s, several measures were effectively adopted for the prevention and control of the disease which led to a significant reduction in the number of cases. These measures include: vampire bat population control, livestock vaccination, and animal surveillance. However, due to lapses in these measures over the years (e.g., periods of limited vampire control and incomplete herd vaccination), epidemics have occurred. In light of the significant negative impact of rabies on animal production and human health, rabies surveillance in Trinidad should be enhanced and cases evaluated towards the design and implementation of more evidence-based prevention and control programs.

Prolonged Zika virus viremia in a patient with Guillain-Barré syndrome in Trinidad and Tobago / Viremia prolongada por el virus del Zika en un paciente con síndrome de Guillain-Barré en Trinidad y Tabago / Viremia prolongada do vírus zika em paciente com síndrome de Guillain-Barré em Trinidad e Tobago

ABSTRACT An emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus, Zika virus (ZIKV) is a significant public health concern because of the syndromes associated with the infection. In addition, ZIKV is considered a major problem due to large-scale spread of the disease and the possible clinical complications for the central nervous system, especially Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) and microcephaly. Since the introduction of ZIKV in the Caribbean, molecular detection of the viral RNA has been utilized as a more specific and sensitive approach to demonstrating acute infection. However, it is generally accepted that the virus has a short viremic period, generally less than 5 days. Serologic testing has the inconvenience of strong cross-reactivity among flaviviruses, such as dengue and yellow fever. As part of the laboratory surveillance activities for Zika and other arboviruses at the Caribbean Public Health Agency, in 2016 a sample from a male who was clinically diagnosed with GBS tested positive for Zika virus by real-time polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). The serum sample had been taken on day 21 after the onset of symptoms. The case had initially been characterized as a typical ZIKV infection (mild fever with a generalized maculopapular rash). Later, weakness of limbs and other peripheral neurological symptoms appeared. Enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) showed that the sample was negative for IgM antibodies against Zika, Chikungunya, and dengue viruses. The plaque reduction neutralization test was positive for ZIKV. This indicated parallel development of viremia and immune response against ZIKV. Recent reports have demonstrated a longer duration of the viremia in ZIKV infections. However, our report is the first one that links the infection with extended viremia and the development in parallel of a GBS case.(AU)

RESUMEN El virus del Zika (ZIKV), un flavivirus emergente transmitido por mosquitos, es una inquietud importante en el ámbito de la salud pública por los síndromes asociados con la infección. Además, el ZIKV se considera un problema acuciante debido a la propagación a gran escala de la enfermedad y a las posibles complicaciones clínicas en el sistema nervioso central, en concreto, el síndrome de Guillain-Barré y la microcefalia. Desde que el ZIKV se introdujera en el Caribe, la detección molecular del ARN viral ha sido el método más específico y sensible utilizado para comprobar una infección aguda. Sin embargo, se cree que el virus tiene un período virémico corto, de menos de 5 días en general. La prueba serológica presenta el inconveniente de la fuerte reactividad cruzada entre los flavivirus, como el dengue y la fiebre amarilla. Como parte de las actividades de vigilancia de laboratorio para el Zika y otros arbovirus del Agencia Caribena de Salud Publica, en el 2016 la muestra de un hombre diagnosticado con la enfermedad de Guillain Barré dio positiva para el virus del Zika por medio de una reacción en cadena de la polimerasa en tiempo real (rRT-RCP). La muestra de suero se había tomado en el día 21 después de la aparición de los síntomas. En un principio, el caso se calificó como una infección por ZIKV típica (fiebre leve con una erupción maculopapular generalizada). Posteriormente, apareció la debilidad de los miembros y otros síntomas neurológicos periféricos. La prueba de inmunoadsorción enzimática (ELISA) fue negativa para los anticuerpos de tipo IgM contra los virus del Zika, el chikunguña y el dengue. La prueba de neutralización por reducción del número de placas dio positivo para el ZIKV, lo que probó que paralelamente se había desarrollado una respuesta virémica e inmune contra el ZIKV. En informes recientes se ha demostrado que en las infecciones de ZIKV el periodo virémico es más largo. Sin embargo, nuestro informe es de los primeros que relaciona un periodo virémico prolongado con el desarrollo paralelo del síndrome de Guillain-Barré.(AU)

RESUMO O vírus zika é um flavivírus emergente transmitido por mosquitos e tem sido motivo de grande preocupação em saúde pública por causa das síndromes associadas à infecção. É também considerado um importante problema devido à propagação em grande escala e possíveis complicações clínicas no sistema nervoso central decorrentes da infecção, sobretudo síndrome de Guillain-Barré e microcefalia. Desde a introdução do vírus zika no Caribe, a detecção molecular do RNA viral tem sido usada como método mais específico e sensível para demonstrar infecção aguda. Porém, admite-se em geral que o vírus tem um curto período virêmico, inferior a 5 dias. O teste sorológico tem o inconveniente de produzir intensa reação cruzada com outros flavivírus, como os vírus da dengue e febre amarela. Como parte da vigilância laboratorial do vírus zika e outros arbovírus pela Agência de Saúde Pública do Caribe, em 2016, foi examinada uma amostra de um paciente do sexo masculino com diagnóstico clínico de síndrome de Guillain-Barré e o resultado foi positivo para o vírus zika com a técnica de reação em cadeia da polimerase em tempo real. A amostra sérica havia sido coletada no dia 21 após o início dos sintomas. O caso foi inicialmente descrito como infecção típica pelo vírus zika (febre baixa com erupção cutânea maculopapular generalizada) e, posteriormente, o paciente apresentou fraqueza dos membros e outros sintomas neurológicos periféricos. A amostra foi testada com a técnica de imunoensaio enzimático (ELISA) e foi negativa para anticorpos da classe IgM contra o zika vírus, vírus chikungunya e vírus da dengue. O teste de neutralização por redução de placas foi positivo para o vírus zika, indicando aumento em paralelo da viremia e resposta imunológica ao vírus. Informes recentes têm demonstrado viremia de duração mais prolongada em infecções por vírus zika. Porém, este é o primeiro relato que associa a infecção com viremia prolongada ao surgimento em paralelo da síndrome de Guillain-Barré.(AU)

Prevalence of self-reported sleep duration and sleep habits in type 2 diabetes patients in South Trinidad.

The present study aims to determine the prevalence of self-reported sleep duration and sleep habits and their associated factors in patients with type 2 diabetes in Trinidad. This was a cross-sectional multicenter study. There were 291 patients with type 2 diabetes studied. Sleep habits were assessed using the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey sleep disorder questionnaire. Demographic, anthropometric and biochemical data were also collected. The sample had a mean age of 58.8 years; 66.7% were female. The mean BMI was 28.9 kg/m(2). The prevalence of Excessive Daytime Sleepiness (EDS) was 11.3%. The prevalence of patients with short sleep (⩽6h) was 28.5%. The prevalence of patients with poor sleep was 63.9%. Poor sleep was associated with age, intensive anti-diabetic treatment and longer duration of diabetes. Short sleep was associated with intensive anti-diabetic treatment and BMI, while EDS was associated with increased BMI. In a sample of patients with type 2 diabetes, a high prevalence of self-reported sleep duration and unhealthy sleep habits was found. There needs to be an increased awareness of sleep conditions in adults with type 2 diabetes by doctors caring for these patients.

Do current standards of primary care of diabetes meet with guideline recommendations in Trinidad, West Indies?

AIMS: Primary care management of diabetes was examined using the Caribbean Health Research Council (CHRC) guidelines. METHODS: We retrospectively examined a cross-section of 646 type 2 people with diabetics over 12 months with 1st visit between 1997 and 2005. RESULTS: There were more women (65.8%) than men (34.2%) with age range between 29 and 89 years. Blood pressure and weight were evaluated in >95% of patients at each centre. Waist circumference and BMI were not measured at any time and HbA(1)c was infrequently measured (1.6-7%) over the 12 months. Information on family history (87.5%), smoking and alcohol (78.1%), exercise (21.4%), socioeconomic status (19.4%) and education (0.3%), and fasting blood sugar (97.2%), lipid profile (51.8%) and serum creatinine (37.9%) were assessed at the 1st visit. At follow-up patients were advised on treatment compliance (47.2%), diet (34.2%), exercise (18.5%) and rarely on home monitoring of blood glucose (0.3%). Peripheral sensations, pedal pulses (6%), visual acuity (3.3%), fundoscopy (12.1%) and ECG (3.9%) were scarcely examined at the annual visit. CONCLUSIONS: Current management of diabetes in primary care in Trinidad falls short of Caribbean guideline recommendations. The CHRC and Ministry of Health should jointly educate caregivers of diabetes to implement the guidelines, with annual audits to identify shortfalls in management.