The role of larvae of black soldier fly and house fly and of feed substrate microbes in biotransformation of aflatoxin B1.

Over the past few years, there has been growing interest in the ability of insect larvae to convert various organic side-streams containing mycotoxins into insect biomass that can be used as animal feed. Various studies have examined the effects of exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on a variety of insect species, including the larvae of the black soldier fly (BSFL; Hermetia illucens L.; Diptera: Stratiomyidae) and the housefly (HFL; Musca domestica L.; Diptera: Muscidae). Most of these studies demonstrated that AFB1 degradation takes place, either enzymatic and/or non-enzymatic. The possible role of feed substrate microorganisms (MOs) in this process has thus far not been investigated. The main objective of this study was therefore to investigate whether biotransformation of AFB1 occurred and whether it is caused by insect-enzymes and/or by microbial enzymes of MOs in the feed substrate. In order to investigate this, sterile and non-sterile feed substrates were spiked with AFB1 and incubated either with or without insect larvae (BSFL or HFL). The AFB1 concentration was determined via LC-MS/MS analyses and recorded over time. Approximately 50% of the initially present AFB1 was recovered in the treatment involving BSFL, which was comparable to the treatment without BSFL (60%). Similar patterns were observed for HFL. The molar mass balance of AFB1 for the sterile feed substrates with BSFL and HFL was 73% and 78%, respectively. We could not establish whether non-enzymatic degradation of AFB1 in the feed substrates occurred. The results showed that both BSFL and substrate-specific MOs play a role in the biotransformation of AFB1 as well as in conversion of AFB1 into aflatoxin P1 and aflatoxicol, respectively. In contrast, HFL did not seem to contribute to AFB1 degradation. The obtained results contribute to our understanding of aflatoxin metabolism by different insect species. This information is crucial for assessing the safety of feeding fly larvae with feed substrates contaminated with AFB1 with the purpose of subsequent use as animal feed.

Methodology for risk-based monitoring of contaminants in food - A case study in cereals and fish.

In this study, a methodology was developed that can be used as input for risk-based monitoring plans for chemical contaminants in food products. The novel methodology was applied to a case study in which cereals and fish were evaluated simultaneously for the possible presence of mycotoxins and heavy metals. The methodology was based on hazard quotients that were estimated by dividing the daily intake - using concentrations of the contaminants in the different food products and consumption of the respective products combined per product group - by the health based guidance value (HBGV) or reference points used for assessing potential health concerns (RPHC). The most relevant hazard-product combinations were further ranked based on the volume of import of the ingredients, per import country and a defined contaminant prevalence level per country. For fish, the hazard quotients were around ten times lower compared to the highest hazard quotients in cereals. Consumption of molluscs, mackerel-type fish and herring-type fish contaminated with mercury contributed most to the HBGV or RPHC. The top 25 hazard-product combinations for various age groups included: aflatoxin B1 in combination with wheat, rice (products), maize (products), and pasta, zearalenone in combination with wheat (products), T2/HT2-toxin in combination with rice (products), and DON in combination with wheat (products). The methodology presented showed to be useful in identifying the most relevant hazard-food-age group combinations and the most relevant import countries linked to these that should be included in the monitoring. As such, the method can help risk managers in establishing risk-based monitoring programs.

Methods to perform risk-based inspections of food companies.

Risk-based monitoring programs are increasingly applied for cost-effective monitoring of food safety. Such programs ideally consist of three steps: risk-ranking, risk-based inspections, and cost-effective monitoring. Various methods have been described to perform the first step of risk-based monitoring. However, once the risk-ranking has been completed, identifying the hazard-food combinations to monitor, the frequency of inspection needs to be established based on a prioritization of food business operators (FBOs). The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of methods available for risk-based inspections. Literature shows that FBO's food safety compliance can be assessed based on company size, historical monitoring data, and socio-economic factors influencing compliance behavior. Non-compliance can either be intentional or unintentional. The latter can be assessed by evaluating the food safety culture of a company. Various models-ranging from qualitative (e.g., focus groups) to quantitative (e.g., scoring)-can be used for this purpose. These models usually include an evaluation of the organizational structure (e.g., management control, communication, commitment), the technical food safety environment (e.g., hygienic design, zoning), and employee characteristics (e.g., knowledge, risk awareness). Intentional non-compliance can be assessed using food fraud vulnerability tools. These tools incorporate factors influencing the likelihood of food fraud at the company, that is, opportunity, motivation, and (lack of) control measures. The literature indicates that either self-assessment tools or risk matrices are applied. There is no global consensus on the methods to apply for risk-based inspections. Depending on time and budget available as well as preferred output, one of the presented methods may be applied for prioritizing FBOs.

Food safety hazards in the European seaweed chain.

Seaweed is a source of protein that can help overcome the anticipated challenges of a growing world population and the current challenges for finding alternatives for animal proteins in the Western diet. Thus far, data on the safety of seaweed for feed and food purposes in the Western world are scattered. This study aimed to review the available knowledge on the presence of food safety hazards in seaweed, including factors influencing their presence, and to prioritize the hazards that may pose a risk to human health. Given current knowledge from the literature, data from the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed, and results from a stakeholder survey, 22 food safety hazards were ranked into major (4), moderate (5), and minor (13) hazards. Arsenic, cadmium, iodine, and Salmonella were identified as major hazards. Hazards, where data gaps exist, should be carefully assessed. These include pesticide residues, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls, brominated flame retardants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals, marine biotoxins, allergens, micro- and nanoplastics, other pathogenic bacteria, norovirus, and hepatitis E virus. It is recommended to collect more data on these hazards in future studies. Many factors can affect the presence of hazards including seaweed type, physiology, season, harvest and cultivation environment, geography including the location of cultivation, alongside further processing. Moreover, when seaweed is cultivated near industrialized or anthropogenic activities, these activities may negatively influence water quality, which can increase the likelihood of hazards in seaweed. Results of the ranking prioritized hazards can be used to prioritize monitoring programs and adjusted given future additional knowledge covering the data gaps.

Quercetin decreases high-fat diet induced body weight gain and accumulation of hepatic and circulating lipids in mice.

Dietary flavonoids may protect against cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Increased circulating lipid levels and hepatic lipid accumulation are known risk factors for CVD. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of the flavonoid quercetin on hepatic lipid metabolism in mice with high-fat diet induced body weight gain and hepatic lipid accumulation. Adult male mice received a 40 energy% high-fat diet without or with supplementation of 0.33 % (w/w) quercetin for 12 weeks. Body weight gain was 29 % lower in quercetin fed mice (p < 0.01), while the energy intake was not significantly different. Quercetin supplementation lowered hepatic lipid accumulation to 29 % of the amount present in the control mice (p < 0.01). (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance serum lipid profiling revealed that the supplementation significantly lowered serum lipid levels. Global gene expression profiling of liver showed that cytochrome P450 2b (Cyp2b) genes, key target genes of the transcription factor constitutive androstane receptor (Car; official symbol Nr1i3), were downregulated. Quercetin decreased high-fat diet induced body weight gain, hepatic lipid accumulation and serum lipid levels. This was accompanied by regulation of cytochrome P450 2b genes in liver, which are possibly under transcriptional control of CAR. The quercetin effects are likely dependent on the fat content of the diet.