Designed ankyrin repeat proteins as scaffolds for multivalent recognition.

Ankyrin repeat (AR) proteins are composed of tandem repeats of a basic structural motif of ca. 33 amino acid residues that form a ß-turn followed by two antiparallel α-helices. Multiple repeats stack together in a modular fashion to form a scaffold that is ideally suited for the presentation of multiple functional groups and/or recognition elements. Here we describe a biosynthetic strategy that takes advantage of the modular nature of these proteins to generate multivalent ligands that are both chemically homogeneous and structurally well-defined. Glycosylated AR proteins cluster the tetrameric lectin concanavalin A (Con A) at a rate that is comparable to the rate of Con A aggregation mediated by globular protein conjugates and variable density linear polymers. Thus, AR proteins define a new class of multivalent ligand scaffolds that have significant potential application in the study and control of a variety of multivalent interactions.

Activating B cell signaling with defined multivalent ligands.

Depending on the stimuli they encounter, B lymphocytes engage in signaling events that lead to immunity or tolerance. Both responses are mediated through antigen interactions with the B cell antigen receptor (BCR). Antigen valency is thought to be an important parameter in B cell signaling, but systematic studies are lacking. To explore this issue, we synthesized multivalent ligands of defined valencies using the ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP). When mice are injected with multivalent antigens generated by ROMP, only those of high valencies elicit antibody production. These results indicate that ligands synthesized by ROMP can activate immune responses in vivo. All of the multivalent antigens tested activate signaling through the BCR. The ability of antigens to cluster the BCR, promote its localization to membrane microdomains, and augment intracellular Ca2+ concentration increases as a function of antigen valency. In contrast, no differences in BCR internalization were detected. Our results indicate that differences in the antigenicity of BCR ligands are related to their ability to elicit increases in intracellular Ca2+ concentration. Finally, we observed that unligated BCRs cluster with BCRs engaged by multivalent ligands, a result that suggests that signals mediated by the BCR are amplified through receptor arrays. Our data suggest a link between the mechanisms underlying signal initiation by receptors that must respond with high sensitivity.

The role of helix stabilizing residues in GCN4 basic region folding and DNA binding.

Basic region leucine zipper (bZip) proteins contain a bipartite DNA-binding motif consisting of a coiled-coil leucine zipper dimerization domain and a highly charged basic region that directly contacts DNA. The basic region is largely unfolded in the absence of DNA, but adopts a helical conformation upon DNA binding. Although a coil --> helix transition is entropically unfavorable, this conformational change positions the DNA-binding residues appropriately for sequence-specific interactions with DNA. The N-terminal residues of the GCN4 DNA-binding domain, DPAAL, make no DNA contacts and are not part of the conserved basic region, but are nonetheless important for DNA binding. Asp and Pro are often found at the N-termini of alpha-helices, and such N-capping motifs can stabilize alpha-helical structure. In the present study, we investigate whether these two residues serve to stabilize a helical conformation in the GCN4 basic region, lowering the energetic cost for DNA binding. Our results suggest that the presence of these residues contributes significantly to helical structure and to the DNA-binding ability of the basic region in the absence of the leucine zipper. Similar helix-capping motifs are found in approximately half of all bZip domains, and the implications of these findings for in vivo protein function are discussed.