Validity of an ultra-wideband local positioning system to measure locomotion in indoor sports.

The validity of an Ultra-wideband (UWB) positioning system was investigated during linear and change-of-direction (COD) running drills. Six recreationally-active men performed ten repetitions of four activities (walking, jogging, maximal acceleration, and 45º COD) on an indoor court. Activities were repeated twice, in the centre of the court and on the side. Participants wore a receiver tag (Clearsky T6, Catapult Sports) and two reflective markers placed on the tag to allow for comparisons with the criterion system (Vicon). Distance, mean and peak velocity, acceleration, and deceleration were assessed. Validity was assessed via percentage least-square means difference (Clearsky-Vicon) with 90% confidence interval and magnitude-based inference; typical error was expressed as within-subject standard deviation. The mean differences for distance, mean/peak speed, and mean/peak accelerations in the linear drills were in the range of 0.2-12%, with typical errors between 1.2 and 9.3%. Mean and peak deceleration had larger differences and errors between systems. In the COD drill, moderate-to-large differences were detected for the activity performed in the centre of the court, increasing to large/very large on the side. When filtered and smoothed following a similar process, the UWB-based positioning system had acceptable validity, compared to Vicon, to assess movements representative of indoor sports.

Warm-up with a weighted vest improves running performance via leg stiffness and running economy.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the effects of "strides" with a weighted-vest during a warm-up on endurance performance and its potential neuromuscular and metabolic mediators. A bout of resistance exercise can enhance subsequent high-intensity performance, but little is known about such priming exercise for endurance performance. DESIGN: A crossover with 5-7 days between an experimental and control trial was performed by 11 well-trained distance runners. METHODS: Each trial was preceded by a warm-up consisting of a 10-min self-paced jog, a 5-min submaximal run to determine running economy, and six 10-s strides with or without a weighted-vest (20% of body mass). After a 10-min recovery period, runners performed a series of jumps to determine leg stiffness and other neuromuscular characteristics, another 5-min submaximal run, and an incremental treadmill test to determine peak running speed. Clinical and non-clinical forms of magnitude-based inference were used to assess outcomes. Correlations and linear regression were used to assess relationships between performance and underlying measures. RESULTS: The weighted-vest condition resulted in a very-large enhancement of peak running speed (2.9%; 90% confidence limits ±0.8%), a moderate increase in leg stiffness (20.4%; ±4.2%) and a large improvement in running economy (6.0%; ±1.6%); there were also small-moderate clear reductions in cardiorespiratory measures. Relationships between change scores showed that changes in leg stiffness could explain all the improvements in performance and economy. CONCLUSIONS: Strides with a weighted-vest have a priming effect on leg stiffness and running economy. It is postulated the associated major effect on peak treadmill running speed will translate into enhancement of competitive endurance performance.

Contribution of vertical strength and power to sprint performance in young male athletes.

The purpose of this study was to assess the possible contribution of 1RM leg-press strength and jump peak power to 20-m sprint time in young athletes in three maturity groups based on age relative to predicted age of peak height velocity (PHV): Pre (- 2.5 to -1.0 years; n=25), Mid (- 1.0 to 0.5 years; n=26) and Post (0.5 to 2.0 years; n=15). Allometric scaling factors, representing percent difference in 20-m time per percent difference in strength and peak power, were derived by linear regression and were similar in the three maturity groups (-0.16%/% and -0.20%/% for strength and peak power, respectively). The moderate increase in sprint performance Pre to Mid PHV (5.7%) reduced to small (1.9%) and trivial but unclear (0.9%) magnitudes after adjustment for 1RM and peak power, while the moderate increase Mid to Post PHV (4.6%) were still moderate (3.4 and 3.0%) after adjustment. Thus percent differences in strength or power explained most of the maturity-related improvements in sprint performance before PHV age but only some improvements after PHV age. Factors in addition to strength and power should be identified and monitored for development of speed in athletes during puberty.

The effect of maturation on adaptations to strength training and detraining in 11-15-year-olds.

To investigate how maturity status modifies the effects of strength training and detraining on performance, we subjected 33 young men to 8 weeks of strength training twice per week followed by 8 weeks without training. Changes in performance tests were analyzed in three maturity groups based on years from/to age of predicted peak height velocity (PHV): pre-PHV (-1.7 ± 0.4 years; n = 10), mid-PHV (-0.2 ± 0.4 years; n = 11), and post-PHV (1.0 ± 0.4 years; n = 12). Mean training effects on one repetition maximum strength (3.6-10.0%), maximum explosive power (11-20%), jump length (6.5-7.4%), and sprint times (-2.1% to -4.7%) ranged from small to large, with generally greater changes in mid- and post-PHV groups. Changes in force-velocity relationships reflected generally greater increases in strength at faster velocities. In the detraining period, the pre-PHV group showed greatest loss of strength and power, the post-PHV group showed some loss of sprint performance, but all groups maintained or improved jump length. Strength training was thus generally less effective before the growth spurt. Maintenance programs are needed for most aspects of explosive performance following strength training before the growth spurt and for sprint speed after the growth spurt.

Variability of serum markers of erythropoiesis during 6 days of racing in highly trained cyclists.

The athlete biological passport for the fight against doping is currently based on longitudinal monitoring for abnormal changes in cellular blood parameters. Serum parameters related to altered erythropoiesis could be considered for inclusion in the passport. The aim of this study was to quantify the changes in such parameters in athletes during a period of intense exercise.12 highly trained cyclists tapered for 3 days before 6 days of simulated intense stage racing. Morning and afternoon blood samples were taken on most days and analysed for total protein, albumin, soluble transferrin receptor and ferritin concentrations. Plasma volume was determined via total haemoglobin mass measured by carbon-monoxide rebreathing. Percent changes in means from baseline and percent standard errors of measurement (analytical error plus intra-athlete variation) on each measurement occasion were estimated with mixed linear modelling of log-transformed measures. Means of all variables changed substantially in the days following the onset of racing, ranging from -13% (haemoglobin concentration) to +27% (ferritin). After the second day, errors of measurement were generally twice those at baseline. Plasma variables were affected by heavy exercise, either because of changes in plasma volume (total protein, albumin, haemoglobin), acute phase/inflammatory reactions (ferritin) or both (soluble transferrin receptor). These effects need to be taken into consideration when integrating a plasma parameter into the biological passport model for athletes.

Lower white blood cell counts in elite athletes training for highly aerobic sports.

White cell counts at rest might be lower in athletes participating in selected endurance-type sports. Here, we analysed blood tests of elite athletes collected over a 10-year period. Reference ranges were established for 14 female and 14 male sports involving 3,679 samples from 937 females and 4,654 samples from 1,310 males. Total white blood cell counts and counts of neutrophils, lymphocytes and monocytes were quantified. Each sport was scaled (1-5) for its perceived metabolic stress (aerobic-anaerobic) and mechanical stress (concentric-eccentric) by 13 sports physiologists. Substantially lower total white cell and neutrophil counts were observed in aerobic sports of cycling and triathlon (~16% of test results below the normal reference range) compared with team or skill-based sports such as water polo, cricket and volleyball. Mechanical stress of sports had less effect on the distribution of cell counts. The lower white cell counts in athletes in aerobic sports probably represent an adaptive response, not underlying pathology.

Inter-relationships between machine squat-jump strength, force, power and 10 m sprint times in trained sportsmen.

AIM: Strength and conditioning practitioners appear focussed on developing maximal strength based on the premise that it underpins explosive muscular performance. Investigation into the relationship between strength and a multitude of explosive power measures is limited though. Furthermore, the relationship of explosive force and power with functional performance is unclear. METHODS: We examined the inter-relationships between maximal strength and explosive measures of force and power at different loads. Also investigated were the relationships between explosive measures and 10-m sprinting ability. Forty elite-level well-trained rugby union and league athletes performed 10-m sprints followed by bilateral concentric-only machine squat-jumps at 20 and 80%1RM. The magnitudes of the inter-relationships between groups of force measures, power measures and sprint times were interpreted using Pearson correlation coefficients, which had uncertainty (90% confidence limits) of approximately +/-0.25. Measures investigated included peak force, peak power, rate of force development, and some of Zatsiorsky's explosive measures, all expressed relative to body mass. RESULTS: The relationship between maximal strength and peak power was moderate at 20 %1RM (r=0.32) but trivial at 80 %1RM (r=-0.03). Practically no relationship between any of the explosive measures and 10-m sprint ability was observed (r=-0.01 to 0.06). CONCLUSION: Although correlations do not imply cause and effect, we speculate that the common practice of focussing on high levels of maximal strength in a machine squat to improve power output may be misguided. Our results also cast doubt on the efficacy of increasing explosive force and power in a machine squat-jump with the intention of improving sprint ability in well-trained athletes.

Interim evaluation of the effect of a new scrum law on neck and back injuries in rugby union.

BACKGROUND: In January 2007 the International Rugby Board implemented a new law for scrum engagement aimed at improving player welfare by reducing impact force and scrum collapses. In New Zealand the new law was included in RugbySmart, an annual compulsory workshop for coaches and referees. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of the new law on scrum-related moderate to serious neck and back injury claims in 2007. METHODS: Claims filed with the Accident Compensation Corporation (the provider of no-fault injury compensation and rehabilitation in New Zealand) were combined with numbers of registered players to estimate moderate to serious scrum-related claims for players who take part in scrums (forwards). Poisson linear regression was used to compare the observed claims per 100 000 forwards for 2007 with the rate predicted from data for 2002-6. RESULTS: The observed and predicted claims per 100 000 forwards were 52 and 76, respectively (rate ratio 0.69; 90% CI 0.42 to 1.12). The likelihoods of substantial benefit (rate ratio <0.90) and harm (rate ratio >1.1) attributable to the scrum law were 82% and 5%, respectively. CONCLUSION: The decline in scrum-related injury claims is consistent with a beneficial effect of the new scrum law in the first year of its implementation. Another year of monitoring should provide more evidence for the efficacy of the new law.

Game performance and intermittent hypoxic training.

Live high-train low altitude exposure simulated by hypoxic devices may improve athletic performance. In this study, intermittent normobaric hypoxia was achieved with the GO2altitude hypoxicator to determine its effects on sea level performance in rugby players. Ten players were randomly assigned to two groups. Players in each group received 14 sessions of either hypoxic (10-15% O(2)) or normoxic (21% O(2)) exposure at rest over 14 consecutive days in a single blind fashion. Various performance measures were obtained consecutively in a single testing session pre- and post-exposure. Effects of hypoxic exposure on maximum speed and sprint times were trivial (<1.0%) but unclear (90% likely range, +/-5% to +/-9%). In rugby simulation, hypoxic exposure produced impairments of peak power in two scrums (15%, +/-8%; 9%, +/-7%) and impairments of time in offensive sprints (7%, +/-8%) and tackle sprints (11%, +/-9%). Pending further research, rugby players would be unwise to use normobaric intermittent hypoxic exposure to prepare for games at sea level.

Ergometer error and biological variation in power output in a performance test with three cycle ergometers.

When physical performance is monitored with an ergometer, random error arising from the ergometer combines with biological variation from the subject to limit the precision of estimation of performance changes. We report here the contributions of ergometer error and biological variation to the error of measurement in a performance test with two popular cycle ergometers (air-braked Kingcycle, mobile SRM crankset) and a relatively new inexpensive mobile ergometer (PowerTap hub). Eleven well-trained male cyclists performed a familiarization trial followed by three 5-min time trials within 2 wk on a racing cycle fitted with the SRM and PowerTap and mounted on the Kingcycle. Mean power output in each trial was recorded with all ergometers simultaneously. A novel analysis using mixed modelling of log-transformed mean power provided estimates of the standard error of measurement as a coefficient of variation and its components arising from the ergometer and the cyclists. The usual errors of measurement were: Kingcycle 2.2 %, PowerTap 1.5 %, and SRM 1.6 % (90 % confidence limits +/- 1.3). The components of these errors arising purely from the ergometers and the cyclists were: Kingcycle 1.8 %, PowerTap 0.9 %, SRM 1.1 %, and cyclists 1.2 % (+/- 1.5). Thus, ergometer errors and biological variation made substantial contributions to the usual error of measurement. Use of the best ergometers and of test protocols that reduce biological variation would improve monitoring of the small changes that matter to elite athletes.

The effect of intermittent hypoxic training via a hypoxic inhaler on physiological and performance measures in rowers: a pilot study.

Intermittent hypoxic training and discontinuous exposure to altitude were used to improve performance at sea level in elite rowers. Altitude was simulated with a newly patented device which allowed athletes to experience altitude by re-breathing oxygen-depleted expired air. Seven elite rowers (five females, two males) used inhalers for a 90-min supervised daily session (alternating 6 min on and 4 min off) for 3 weeks, while four female elite rowers used placebo devices in the same sessions. The inhalers were adjusted to produce a progressive decrease in oxygen saturation over the 3 weeks (initially 90%; finally 80%). Immediately before and 7-10 days after altitude exposure, the rowers performed an incremental lactate test to determine power output equivalent to 4 mM [BLa], a 500-m time trial and a 5000-m time trial, all on a rowing ergometer. Relative to the control group, the altitude group showed a slight improvement in mean power for the 5000-m time trial (0.6%, 90% likely limits +/-3.7%), and a substantial impairment in mean power for the 500-m trial (2.2%, +/-4.1%). Power at 4-mM lactate declined in both groups, but overall the altitude group improved by 0.4% (+/-3.5%) relative to control. The device represents a practical way to simulate altitude exposure, but it is unlikely to have major effects on performance of elite rowers.

Positional differences in fitness and anthropometric characteristics in Australian football.

To evaluate the utility of fitness assessment and trends in drafting of players in the Australian Football League, we analysed height, mass, skinfolds, 20-m sprint, vertical jump, agility run and endurance assessed in the 495 players attending the annual national draft camps between 1999 and 2004. Effects of player position and assessment year were expressed as standardised mean differences (Cohen effect sizes) and interpreted qualitatively. Effect of birth month on chance of being drafted, which may be important in team sports, was also analysed. Compared with midfield players, ruckmen, tall forwards and tall defenders were decisively taller (effect-size range 1.33-1.95, large) and heavier (1.30-1.63, large), but had poorer sprint speed (0.23-0.57, small), aerobic ability (0.66-1.18, moderate) and agility (0.64-1.11, moderate). The only substantial changes in fitness scores over the 5-year period were an increase in height (0.76, moderate) and an increase in 20-m sprint time (0.39, small). A majority (65%) of players attending the camps were born in the first half of a given year, but their chance of being drafted (70%) was similar to that of players born in the second half (64%). We conclude that fitness assessment is useful for differentiating between player positions and identifying some annual trends in recruitment in Australian football, and that players with a second half birth month have been disadvantaged with lower representation at the national draft camp.

Anthropometry profiles of elite rugby players: quantifying changes in lean mass.

OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate the utility of a practical measure of lean mass for monitoring changes in the body composition of athletes. METHODS: Between 1999 and 2003 body mass and sum of seven skinfolds were recorded for 40 forwards and 32 backs from one Super 12 rugby union franchise. Players were assessed on 13 (7) occasions (mean (SD)) over 1.9 (1.3) years. Mixed modelling of log transformed variables provided a lean mass index (LMI) of the form mass/skinfolds(x), for monitoring changes in mass controlled for changes in skinfold thickness. Mean effects of phase of season and time in programme were modelled as percentage changes. Effects were standardised for interpretation of magnitudes. RESULTS: The exponent x was 0.13 for forwards and 0.14 for backs (90% confidence limits +/-0.03). The forwards had a small decrease in skinfolds (5.3%, 90% confidence limits +/-2.2%) between preseason and competition phases, and a small increase (7.8%, 90% confidence limits +/-3.1%) during the club season. A small decrease in LMI (approximately 1.5%) occurred after one year in the programme for forwards and backs, whereas increases in skinfolds for forwards became substantial (4.3%, 90% confidence limits +/-2.2%) after three years. Individual variation in body composition was small within a season (within subject SD: body mass, 1.6%; skinfolds, 6.8%; LMI, 1.1%) and somewhat greater for body mass (2.1%) and LMI (1.7%) between seasons. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a lack of substantial mean changes, there was substantial individual variation in lean mass within and between seasons. An index of lean mass based on body mass and skinfolds is a potentially useful tool for assessing body composition of athletes.

Validation of a skinfold based index for tracking proportional changes in lean mass.

BACKGROUND: The lean mass index (LMI) is a new empirical measure that tracks within-subject proportional changes in body mass adjusted for changes in skinfold thickness. OBJECTIVE: To compare the ability of the LMI and other skinfold derived measures of lean mass to monitor changes in lean mass. METHODS: 20 elite rugby union players undertook full anthropometric profiles on two occasions 10 weeks apart to calculate the LMI and five skinfold based measures of lean mass. Hydrodensitometry, deuterium dilution, and dual energy x ray absorptiometry provided a criterion choice, four compartment (4C) measure of lean mass for validation purposes. Regression based measures of validity, derived for within-subject proportional changes through log transformation, included correlation coefficients and standard errors of the estimate. RESULTS: The correlation between change scores for the LMI and 4C lean mass was moderate (0.37, 90% confidence interval -0.01 to 0.66) and similar to the correlations for the other practical measures of lean mass (range 0.26 to 0.42). Standard errors of the estimate for the practical measures were in the range of 2.8-2.9%. The LMI correctly identified the direction of change in 4C lean mass for 14 of the 20 athletes, compared with 11 to 13 for the other practical measures of lean mass. CONCLUSIONS: The LMI is probably as good as other skinfold based measures for tracking lean mass and is theoretically more appropriate. Given the impracticality of the 4C criterion measure for routine field use, the LMI may offer a convenient alternative for monitoring physique changes, provided its utility is established under various conditions.

Fitness testing and career progression in AFL football.

Relationships between fitness testing and career progression in the Australian Football League (AFL) are under-explored. This study investigated relationships between anthropometric and fitness tests conducted at the annual AFL National Draft Camp and subsequent career progression of players. A total of 283 players was tested over three consecutive camps (1999-2001). The anthropometric and fitness measures were: height, mass, sum of skinfolds, 20-m sprint test, vertical jump (standing and bilateral running), agility run and a multi-stage incremental shuttle run. The five outcome variables were: drafted (yes/no), AFL debut (yes/no), number of AFL games played to the end of 2003, and subjective ratings of career potential and career value (5-point scale). Of 205 players (72%) subsequently drafted, 166 (59%) eventually made their AFL debut. Players drafted to AFL clubs were faster over 5 m, 10 m and 20 m, ran further in the shuttle run and ran marginally faster in the agility test than players not drafted. Multi-regression analysis showed small to moderate correlations (r = 0.27-0.31) between the designated outcome variables and selected fitness tests: 20-m sprint time (faster), agility run test (faster), and running vertical jump (higher absolute height and smaller difference between left and ride sides). Regression analysis for the standing vertical jump relative to standing reach height showed a counterintuitive negative correlation with positive outcomes, possibly reflecting non-compliance with testing procedures by the less successful athletes. We conclude that the 20-m sprint, jump, agility and shuttle run tests have a small but important association with career progression of AFL footballers.

Characterising the individual performance responses to mild illness in international swimmers.

OBJECTIVES: To determine individual differences in the impact of illness on the change in performance of swimmers in international competitions. METHODS: Subjects were members of the Australian swimming team (33 male and 39 female, aged 15-27 years). Swimmers provided a weekly seven day recall of symptoms of illness during final six weeks of preparations for international competition over a three year period. Swimmers were categorised as either ill (one or more episodes of illness) or healthy. The measure of performances was the international point score. Mean changes in points score were calculated for healthy and ill swimmers between a national championship and an international competition ( approximately 16 weeks later). Likelihoods of substantial effects of illness on an individual's true change in performance (beneficial/trivial/harmful) were estimated from means and standard deviations, assuming a smallest substantial change of 6 points. RESULTS: Illness was reported before international performances by 38% of female and 35% of male swimmers. For female swimmers the change in performance was -3.7 (21.5) points (mean (SD)) with illness and -2.6 (19.0) points when healthy; for male swimmers the changes were -1.4 (17.5) points with illness and 5.6 (13.2) points when healthy. The likelihoods that illness had a substantial beneficial/trivial/harmful effect on performance of an individual swimmer were 32%/31%/37% for female and 17%/31%/52% for male participants (90% confidence limits approximately +/-10% to 20%). CONCLUSIONS: Although mild illness had only a trivial mean effect on female swimmers and a small harmful mean effect on male swimmers, there were substantial chances of benefit and harm for individuals.

Sleep in athletes undertaking protocols of exposure to nocturnal simulated altitude at 2650 m.

A popular method to attempt to enhance performance is for athletes to sleep at natural or simulated moderate altitude (SMA) when training daily near sea level. Based on our previous observation of periodic breathing in athletes sleeping at SMA, we hypothesised that athletes' sleep quality would also suffer with hypoxia. Using two typical protocols of nocturnal SMA (2650 m), we examined the effect on the sleep physiology of 14 male endurance-trained athletes. The selected protocols were Consecutive (15 successive exposure nights) and Intermittent (3x 5 successive exposure nights, interspersed with 2 normoxic nights) and athletes were randomly assigned to follow either one. We monitored sleep for two successive nights under baseline conditions (B; normoxia, 600 m) and then at weekly intervals (nights 1, 8 and 15 (N1, N8 and N15, respectively)) of the protocols. Since there was no significant difference in response between the protocols being followed (based on n=7, for each group) we are unable to support a preference for either one, although the likelihood of a Type II error must be acknowledged. For all athletes (n=14), respiratory disturbance and arousal responses between B and N1, although large in magnitude, were highly individual and not statistically significant. However, SpO2 decreased at N1 versus B (p<0.001) and remained lower on N8 (p<0.001) and N15 (p<0.001), not returning to baseline level. Compared to B, arousals were more frequent on N8 (p=0.02) and N15 (p=0.01). The percent of rapid eye movement sleep (REM) increased from N1 to N8 (p=0.03) and N15 (p=0.01). Overall, sleeping at 2650 m causes sleep disturbance in susceptible athletes, yet there was some improvement in REM sleep over the study duration.