New insight into avian malaria vectors in New Zealand.

BACKGROUND: Mosquitoes (Culicidae) are vectors for most malaria parasites of the Plasmodium species and are required for Plasmodium spp. to complete their life cycle. Despite having 16 species of mosquitoes and the detection of many Plasmodium species in birds, little is known about the role of different mosquito species in the avian malaria life cycle in New Zealand. METHODS: In this study, we used nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and real-time PCR to determine Plasmodium spp. prevalence and diversity of mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences in wild-caught mosquitoes sampled across ten sites on the North Island of New Zealand during 2012-2014. The mosquitoes were pooled by species and location collected, and the thorax and abdomens were examined separately for Plasmodium spp. DNA. Akaike information criterion (AIC) modeling was used to test whether location, year of sampling, and mosquito species were significant predictors of minimum infection rates (MIR). RESULTS: We collected 788 unengorged mosquitoes of six species, both native and introduced. The most frequently caught mosquito species were the introduced Aedes notoscriptus and the native Culex pervigilans. Plasmodium sp DNA was detected in 37% of matched thorax and abdomen pools. When considered separately, 33% of abdomen and 23% of thorax pools tested positive by nested PCR. The MIR of the positive thorax pools from introduced mosquito species was 1.79% for Ae. notoscriptus and 0% for Cx. quinquefasciatus, while the MIR for the positive thorax pools of native mosquito species was 4.9% for Cx. pervigilans and 0% for Opifex fuscus. For the overall MIR, site and mosquito species were significant predictors of Plasmodium overall MIR. Aedes notoscriptus and Cx. pervigilans were positive for malaria DNA in the thorax samples, indicating that they may play a role as avian malaria vectors. Four different Plasmodium lineages (SYAT05, LINN1, GRW6, and a new lineage of P (Haemamoeba) sp. AENOT11) were identified in the pooled samples. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first detection of avian Plasmodium DNA extracted from thoraxes of native Culex and introduced Aedes mosquito species in New Zealand and therefore the first study providing an indication of potential vectors in this country.

Bovine viral diarrhoea viruses from New Zealand belong predominantly to the BVDV-1a genotype.

AIM: To determine which genotypes of bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) circulate among cattle in New Zealand. METHODS: Samples comprised BVDV-1-positive sera sourced from submissions to veterinary diagnostic laboratories in 2019 (n = 25), 2020 (n = 59) and 2022 (n = 74) from both beef and dairy herds, as well as archival BVDV-1 isolates (n = 5). Fragments of the 5' untranslated region (5' UTR) and glycoprotein E2 coding sequence of the BVDV genome were amplified and sequenced. The sequences were aligned to each other and to international BVDV-1 sequences to determine their similarities and phylogenetic relationships. The 5' UTR sequences were also used to create genetic haplotype networks to determine if they were correlated with selected traits (location, type of farm, and year of collection). RESULTS: The 5' UTR sequences from New Zealand BVDV were closely related to each other, with pairwise identities between 89% and 100%. All clustered together and were designated as BVDV-1a (n = 144) or BVDV-1c (n = 5). There was no evidence of a correlation between the 5' UTR sequence and the geographical origin within the country, year of collection or the type of farm. Partial E2 sequences from New Zealand BVDV (n = 76) showed 74-100% identity to each other and clustered in two main groups. The subtype assignment based on the E2 sequence was the same as based on the 5' UTR analysis. This is the first comprehensive analysis of genomic variability of contemporary New Zealand BVDV based on the analysis of the non-coding (5' UTR) and coding (E2) sequences. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Knowledge of the diversity of the viruses circulating in the country is a prerequisite for the development of effective control strategies, including a selection of suitable vaccines. The data presented suggest that New Zealand BVDV are relatively homogeneous, which should facilitate eradication efforts including selection or development of the most suitable vaccines.

Internal Delensing of Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization B-Modes with the POLARBEAR Experiment.

Using only cosmic microwave background polarization data from the polarbear experiment, we measure B-mode polarization delensing on subdegree scales at more than 5σ significance. We achieve a 14% B-mode power variance reduction, the highest to date for internal delensing, and improve this result to 22% by applying for the first time an iterative maximum a posteriori delensing method. Our analysis demonstrates the capability of internal delensing as a means of improving constraints on inflationary models, paving the way for the optimal analysis of next-generation primordial B-mode experiments.

Digital Control of a Superconducting Qubit Using a Josephson Pulse Generator at 3 K.

Scaling of quantum computers to fault-tolerant levels relies critically on the integration of energy-efficient, stable, and reproducible qubit control and readout electronics. In comparison to traditional semiconductor-control electronics (TSCE) located at room temperature, the signals generated by rf sources based on Josephson-junctions (JJs) benefit from small device sizes, low power dissipation, intrinsic calibration, superior reproducibility, and insensitivity to ambient fluctuations. Previous experiments to colocate qubits and JJ-based control electronics have resulted in quasiparticle poisoning of the qubit, degrading the coherence and lifetime of the qubit. In this paper, we digitally control a 0.01-K transmon qubit with pulses from a Josephson pulse generator (JPG) located at the 3-K stage of a dilution refrigerator. We directly compare the qubit lifetime T 1, the coherence time T 2 * , and the thermal occupation P th when the qubit is controlled by the JPG circuit versus the TSCE setup. We find agreement to within the daily fluctuations of ±0.5 µs and ±2 µs for T 1 and T 2 * , respectively, and agreement to within the 1% error for P th. Additionally, we perform randomized benchmarking to measure an average JPG gate error of 2.1 × 10-2. In combination with a small device size (< 25 mm2) and low on-chip power dissipation (≪100 µW), these results are an important step toward demonstrating the viability of using JJ-based control electronics located at temperature stages higher than the mixing-chamber stage in highly scaled superconducting quantum information systems.

Presence and diversity of mixed avian Plasmodium spp. infections in introduced birds whose distribution overlapped with threatened New Zealand endemic birds.

Aims: To determine the presence of infection and co-infection of Plasmodium lineages in introduced birds at translocation sites for the North Island saddleback (Philesturnus rufusater), to investigate their role as Plasmodium spp. reservoirs.Methods: Blood samples were collected from introduced bird species, with a special focus on blackbirds (Turdus merula) and song thrushes (Turdus philomelos), at six locations in the North Island of New Zealand that were the origin, or translocation sites, for North Island saddleback. Where available, blood smears were examined, and blood samples were tested using nested PCR with subsequent sequence analysis, for the presence of Plasmodium spp.Results: Of the 55 samples tested using PCR analysis, 39 (71%) were positive for Plasmodium spp., and 28/40 (62%) blood smears were positive for Plasmodium spp. Overall, 31 blood samples were from blackbirds with 28/31 (90%) samples positive for Plasmodium spp. Six distinct avian Plasmodium lineages were identified, including three cosmopolitan lineages; Plasmodium vaughani SYAT05 was detected in 16 samples, Plasmodium matutinum Linn1 in 10 samples and Plasmodium elongatum GRW6 in eight samples. Mixed infections with more than one lineage were detected in 12 samples. Samples from two Australian magpies (Gymnorhina tibicen) were positive for Plasmodium. sp. lineage MYNA02, previously not identified in New Zealand.Conclusions and clinical relevance: This is the first report from New Zealand in which specific Plasmodium spp. mixed infections have been found in introduced birds. Co-infections with several cosmopolitan Plasmodium lineages were identified, as well as the first report in New Zealand of an exotic avian Plasmodium sp. lineage, in Australian magpies. Whilst the role of introduced birds in maintaining and spreading pathogenic avian malaria in New Zealand is unclear, there is a potential infection risk to native birds, especially where distributions overlap.

Investigation of association between bovine viral diarrhoea virus and cervid herpesvirus type-1, and abortion in New Zealand farmed deer.

This study tested for association between bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDv) and cervid herpesvirus type-1 (CvHV-1) exposure and abortion in New Zealand farmed red deer. Rising two-year-old (R2, n = 22,130) and mixed-age (MA, n = 36,223) hinds from 87 and 71 herds, respectively, throughout New Zealand were pregnancy tested using ultrasound early in gestation (Scan-1) and 55-89 days later (Scan-2) to detect mid-term abortion. Sera from aborted and non-aborted hinds at Scan-2 were tested for BVDv and CvHV-1 using virus neutralisation tests. Available uteri from aborted hinds and from hinds not rearing a calf to weaning were tested by PCR for herpesvirus DNA. In herds with aborted hinds, 10.3% of 639 R2 and 17.2% of 302 MA hinds were sero-positive for BVDv and 18.6% of 613 R2 and 68.5% of 232 MA hinds were sero-positive for CvHV-1. There was no association between BVDv sero-status and abortion at animal level (R2 p = 0.36, MA p = 0.76) whereas CvHV-1 sero-positivity was negatively associated with abortion in MA hinds (p = 0.01) but not in R2 hinds (p = 0.36), MA). Eleven of 108 uteri from aborted R2 hinds but no MA hinds were positive for herpesvirus DNA. Vaginal samples from four R2 and one MA aborted hinds tested were negative for herpesvirus DNA. A Cervid Rhadinovirus type-2 (CRhV-2) was identified in seven PCR positive uteri samples. Findings suggest that BVDv and CvHV-1 may not be associated with abortion in R2 hinds, but association needs to be tested further in MA hinds. The role of CRhV-2 requires clarification.

Childhood adversity and DNA methylation in two population-based cohorts.

Childhood adversity affects later health, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are unclear. Although there is some evidence from animal models and case-control studies of a role for DNA methylation, evidence from human population-based studies is limited. In two cohorts (mothers from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, ALSPAC, n = 780 and women from the MRC National Survey of Health and Development, NSHD, n = 552), we assessed the association of seven adverse childhood experiences (ACEs: parental physical illness, parental mental illness, parental death, parental separation, suboptimal maternal bonding, childhood illness and child maltreatment) as well as their combination (ACE score) with genome-wide DNA methylation levels measured using the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip in peripheral blood at mean age 47 years (ALSPAC) and in buccal cells at age 53 years (NSHD). CpG sites with a genome-wide false discovery rate (FDR) below 0.05 and differentially methylated regions (DMRs) with one-step Sidák correction p-values below 0.05 in each cohort were examined in the other cohort. No individual CpG sites replicated across cohorts. However, nine DMRs replicated across cohorts respectively associated with the ACE score (one region), parental mental illness (two regions), parental physical illness (three regions) and parental death (three regions). These observations indicate that some adverse childhood experiences, notably those related to parental health, may leave imprints on peripheral DNA methylation that persist to mid-life.

Frailty in older-age European migrants: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of the Survey of Health, Aging and Retirement in Europe (SHARE).

Frailty correlates with morbidity and is superior to chronological age in predicting mortality. Frailty of older migrants has important implications for the demands placed on healthcare systems. Examining 95,635 Europeans in the Survey of Health, Aging and Retirement in Europe, we investigated cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between migration and frailty at ages >50 years. We examined whether associations differed by countries' level of healthcare coverage and access for migrants and tested mediation by home-ownership and citizenship. Cross-sectionally, first-generation migrants >50 years old were, on average, 16.4% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 14.6, 18.2%) frailer than non-migrants after confounder-adjustment. This decreased to 12.1% (95% CI: 10.1, 14.1%) after adjustment for citizenship. The strength of association between migrant status and frailty was greater in migrants from low-or-middle-income countries, compared with migrants from high-income countries. Migrants into Northern, Western and Eastern Europe were 37.3% (95% CI: 33.2, 41.5%), 12.2% (95% CI: 10.0, 14.6%) and 5.0% (95% CI: 0.5, 9.6%) frailer than non-migrants, respectively, but migrants into Southern Europe were no frailer than non-migrants. The strength of association between migrant status and frailty was greater in countries with lower healthcare coverage and access for migrants. However, citizenship attenuated this difference. Longitudinally, migrants were frailer than non-migrants at 50 years old and trajectories converged over time until migrants and non-migrants were equally frail by 80-90 years. Our work finds no evidence of the 'healthy migrant effect' outside of Southern Europe in older migrants and suggests that acculturation is a key determinant of migrant health.

Lack of association between Leptospira spp. serovars Hardjobovis and Pomona and pregnancy and mid-term abortion in New Zealand farmed red deer.

This paper investigates Leptospira borgpeterseni serovar Hardjobovis and L. interrogans serovar Pomona as potential causes of sub-optimum pregnancy rates and mid-term abortion in farmed red deer. Rising two-year-old (R2, n = 22,130) and mixed-age (MA, n = 36,223) hinds from 87 and 71 herds, respectively, throughout New Zealand were ultrasound scanned early in gestation (Scan-1) and a sub-sample re-scanned (Scan-2) 55-89 days later and mid-term daily abortion rate calculated. A sub-sample of sera from pregnant and non-pregnant hinds at both scans, both with (case herds) and without aborted hinds was tested for Leptospira using the microscopic agglutination test with titre cut-point ≥1:48 as positive. At Scan-1, 44.3% of 661 and 4.6% of 647 hinds were sero-positive for Hardjobovis and Pomona, respectively. The geometric mean titre (GMT) for Pomona was higher in pregnant than non-pregnant MA hinds (p = 0.015) but not in R2 hinds. At Scan-2 in case herds, 40.3% of 2242 and 7.1% of 2243 hinds were sero-positive for Hardjobovis and Pomona, respectively. There was no association between Hardjobovis or Pomona serology and non-pregnancy (Scan-1) or mid-term abortion (Scan-2) at animal or herd level. In case herds, GMT was higher in non-aborted than aborted hinds for Hardjobovis (p = 0.018) in MA herds and for Pomona in R2 herds (p = 0.006). No uteri from hinds not pregnant or aborting at either scan, or not rearing a calf to weaning, and fetuses as available, were positive on PCR. Evidence is insufficient to confirm that Leptospira Hardjobovis and Pomona play a significant role in sup-optimum early pregnancy or mid-term abortion rates in deer.

DNA methylation from birth to late adolescence and development of multiple-risk behaviours.

BACKGROUND: Risk behaviours in adolescence are linked to poor educational attainment and health and other outcomes in young adulthood. We explored whether there are molecular mechanisms associated with the development, or the result, of multiple risk behaviours (MRBs). METHODS: MRBs (antisocial behaviour and delinquency, traffic-related risk behaviour, risky sexual behaviour, lack of exercise) and their sumscore were characterized based on self-reported questions at age 7 and 17 within the ARIES subsample of the ALSPAC birth cohort, and were linked to DNA methylation at over 485,000 CpG sites at ages 0,7 and 17. Associations were determined for participants with complete data (n = 227-575). RESULTS: There was weak evidence of associations between cumulative MRBs and methylation at cg01783492 and cg16720578 at age 17. DNA methylation at age 17 was associated with risky sexual behaviour (cg22883332), lack of exercise (cg03152353, cg20056908, cg20571116) and substance use (cg02188400, cg13906377). No associations between DNA methylation and individual risk behaviours at age 7 were observed. DNA methylation at age 7 might predispose for traffic-related risk behaviour (cg24683561) and substance use (cg08761410) at age 17. LIMITATIONS: Main limitations are absence of information on directly measured blood cell type proportions and tissue specificity, and a modest sample size. CONCLUSIONS: Cumulative MRB in late adolescence was associated with effects on DNA methylation. More specifically, risky sexual behaviour and sedentary behaviour are associated with changes in DNA methylation, while DNA methylation in childhood may predict later traffic-related risky behaviour. For substance use effects in both temporal directions were observed.

Cases of mortality in little penguins (Eudyptula minor) in New Zealand associated with avian malaria.

CASE HISTORY A little penguin (Eudyptula minor) of wild origin, in captivity at Wellington Zoo, became inappetent and lethargic in March 2013. Despite supportive care in the zoo's wildlife hospital, the bird died within 24 hours. CLINICAL FINDINGS Weight loss, dehydration, pale mucous membranes, weakness, increased respiratory effort and biliverdinuria were apparent on physical examination. Microscopic evaluation of blood smears revealed intra-erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium spp. and a regenerative reticulocytosis in the absence of anaemia. PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS Post-mortem findings included reduced body condition, dehydration, pulmonary congestion and oedema, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, hydropericardium and subcutaneous oedema. Histopathological findings included protozoal organisms in sections of lung, liver and spleen. A marked, diffuse, sub-acute interstitial histiocytic pneumonia was present. Accumulation of haemosiderin was noted in the Kupffer cells of the liver and in histiocytic-type cells in the spleen. MOLECULAR TESTING DNA was extracted from frozen portions of the liver. Nested PCR results and DNA sequencing confirmed infection of the deceased little penguin with Plasmodium (Huffia) elongatum lineage GRW06. DIAGNOSIS Avian malaria due to Plasmodium (Huffia) elongatum GRW06 RETROSPECTIVE INVESTIGATION A retrospective analysis of 294 little penguin cases in the Massey University post-mortem database revealed three other potential avian malaria cases. Analysis of archived tissues using a nested PCR for Plasmodium spp. followed by DNA sequencing revealed that a little penguin which died at Auckland Zoo was infected with P. elongatum GRW06 and two wild little penguins found dead on New Zealand beaches were infected with P. relictum SGS1 and Plasmodium. sp. lineage LINN1. Therefore, the overall frequency of deaths in little penguins associated with avian malaria was 4/295 (1.36%). CLINICAL RELEVANCE Our results suggest that avian malaria is associated with sporadic mortality in New Zealand's little penguins both in the wild and in captivity, but there is no evidence of mass mortality events due to Plasmodium spp. infection.

Use of a real-time PCR to explore the intensity of Plasmodium spp. infections in native, endemic and introduced New Zealand birds.

Avian malaria, caused by Plasmodium spp., is an emerging disease in New Zealand (NZ). To detect Plasmodium spp. infection and quantify parasite load in NZ birds, a real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (qPCR) protocol was used and compared with a nested PCR (nPCR) assay. A total of 202 blood samples from 14 bird species with known nPCR results were tested. The qPCR prevalences for introduced, native and endemic species groups were 70, 11 and 21%, respectively, with a sensitivity and specificity of 96·7 and 98%, respectively, for the qPCR, while a sensitivity and specificity of 80·9 and 85·4% were determined for the nPCR. The qPCR appeared to be more sensitive in detecting lower levels of parasitaemia. The mean parasite load was significantly higher in introduced bird species (2245 parasites per 10 000 erythrocytes) compared with endemic species (31·5 parasites per 10 000 erythrocytes). In NZ robins (Petroica longipes), a significantly lower packed cell volume was found in birds that were positive for Plasmodium spp. compared with birds that were negative. Our data suggest that introduced bird species, such as blackbirds (Turdus merula), have a higher tolerance for circulating parasite stages of Plasmodium spp., indicating that introduced species are an important reservoir of avian malaria due to a high infection prevalence and parasite load.

Comparison of an alcohol-based hand sanitation product with a traditional chlorhexidine hand scrub technique for hand hygiene preparation in an equine hospital.

AIMS: To investigate the efficacy of an alcohol gel-based hand antisepsis protocol compared with a traditional chlorhexidine-based protocol under conditions of routine clinical contamination, and following heavy faecal contamination. METHODS: Twelve adult participants were recruited and on four separate days completed a hand sanitation protocol using a chlorhexidine scrub or an alcohol-based gel, with hands that were grossly clean but contaminated or with faecal contamination. Bacterial samples were obtained from participants' hands before sanitation, immediately after and then 2 hours later. All samples were cultured on blood and MacConkey agar and bacterial colonies counted after 48 hours. RESULTS: for clean contaminated hands, the percentage reduction in bacterial colonies on blood agar immediately after hand sanitation was similar for both protocols (p=0.3), but was greater for the alcohol gel than chlorhexidine after 2 hours (p=0.005). For hands with faecal contamination, the percentage reduction in bacterial colonies on blood agar was similar for both protocols immediately and 2 hours after sanitation (p>0.2), but positive cultures were obtained on blood agar from samples collected after both protocols, for almost all participants. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate equivalent efficacy of the alcohol-based gel and the pre-surgical chlorhexidine protocol. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The alcohol-based gel protocol is an effective hand asepsis technique for grossly clean contaminated hands and those following faecal contamination, with comparable efficacy to chlorhexidine based scrub.

A retrospective survey into the presence of Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii in archived tissue samples from New Zealand raptors: New Zealand falcons (Falco novaeseelandiae), Australasian harriers (Circus approximans) and moreporks (Ninox novaeseelandiae).

Human colonisation of New Zealand has resulted in the introduction of emerging diseases, such as avian malaria and toxoplasmosis, which arrived with their exotic avian and mammalian hosts. Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii have a wide host range, and several species of endemic New Zealand birds have developed a fatal disease following infection with either pathogen. However, no reports of either toxoplasmosis or avian malaria in New Zealand raptors, namely, the New Zealand falcons (Falco novaeseelandiae), Australasian harriers (Circus approximans) and moreporks (Ninox novaeseelandiae) exist in the literature. Therefore, this study was designed to determine if these two pathogens are present in these raptors through a retrospective analysis of archived tissue samples. Detection and isolate identification of these pathogens was determined using established histological and molecular techniques. All three species of New Zealand raptors tested positive for the presence of Plasmodium spp. (10/117; 8.5%) and an atypical genotype of T. gondii (9/117; 7.7%). Plasmodium lineages identified include P. elongatum GRW6, P. relictum SGS1, P. relictum PADOM02 and Plasmodium sp. LINN1. Two Australasian harriers and one morepork tested positive for the presence of both Plasmodium spp. and T. gondii. However, the pathogenicity of these organisms to the raptors is unclear as none of the tissues showed histological evidence of clinical disease associated with Plasmodium spp. and T. gondii infections. Thus, these results demonstrate for the first time that these two potential pathogens are present in New Zealand's raptors; however, further research is required to determine the prevalence and pathogenicity of these organisms among the living populations of these birds in the country.

Development of a rapid HRM qPCR for the diagnosis of the four most prevalent Plasmodium lineages in New Zealand.

Although wildlife rehabilitation and translocations are important tools in wildlife conservation in New Zealand, disease screening of birds has not been standardized. Additionally, the results of the screening programmes are often difficult to interpret due to missing disease data in resident or translocating avian populations. Molecular methods have become the most widespread method for diagnosing avian malaria (Plasmodium spp.) infections. However, these methods can be time-consuming, expensive and are less specific in diagnosing mixed infections. Thus, this study developed a new real-time PCR (qPCR) method that was able to detect and specifically identify infections of the three most common lineages of avian malaria in New Zealand (Plasmodium (Novyella) sp. SYAT05, Plasmodium elongatum GRW6 and Plasmodium spp. LINN1) as well as a less common, pathogenic Plasmodium relictum GRW4 lineage. The assay was also able to discern combinations of these parasites in the same sample and had a detection limit of five parasites per microlitre. Due to concerns relating to the presence of the potentially highly pathogenic P. relictum GRW4 lineage in avian populations, an additional confirmatory high resolution (HRM) qPCR was developed to distinguish between commonly identified P. elongatum GRW6 from P. relictum GRW4. The new qPCR assays were tested using tissue samples containing Plasmodium schizonts from three naturally infected dead birds resulting in the identified infection of P. elongatum GRW6. Thus, these rapid qPCR assays have shown to be cost-effective and rapid screening tools for the detection of Plasmodium infection in New Zealand native birds.

Description of four new species of coccidia (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) from brown kiwi, Apteryx mantelli, in New Zealand.

This study used morphological techniques to describe and name four new species of coccidia from the brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). Four distinct eimerian oocyst species were recovered that we describe as new species. The largest of these, Eimeria paraurii n. sp. measured 32.2 × 19.8 µm and is morphologically similar to gametocytes previously described histologically in colorectal polyps (Morgan et al. in Parasitol Res 111(4):1689-1699, 2012). Eimeria apteryxii n. sp. measured 23.9 × 14.9 µm and is similar to renal oocysts described histologically in brown, rowi (A. rowii) and Haast tokoeka kiwi (A. australis "Haast") (Morgan et al. in Avian Pathol 42(2):137-146, 2013). Eimeria kiwii n. sp. measured 14.8 × 13.9 µm and resembled gametocytes described previously in kiwi intestinal epithelial cells in brown kiwi (Morgan et al. in Parasitol Res 111(4):1689-1699, 2012). Eimeria mantellii n. sp. measured 17.8 × 10.7 µm and did not appear similar to any coccidia previously described in histological studies in kiwi. These are the first species of Eimeria to be described and named from brown kiwi. Because the morphological descriptions in the present study were determined from a limited number of kiwi droppings from two geographical locations, it is likely that these represent only a portion of Eimeria species present in other populations of both brown kiwi and other Apteryx species from around New Zealand.

Longitudinal study of the associations between change in sedentary behavior and change in adiposity during childhood and adolescence: Gateshead Millennium Study.

BACKGROUND: Sedentary time (ST) has been reported to have a range of negative health effects in adults, however, the evidence for such effects among children and adolescents is sparse. The primary aim of the study was to examine associations between changes in sedentary behavior (time and fragmentation) and changes in adiposity across childhood and adolescence. METHODS: Participants were recruited as part of the Gateshead Millennium Study. Measures were taken at age 7 (n=502), 9 (n=506), 12 (n=420) and 15 years (n=306). Participants wore an ActiGraph GT1M and accelerometer epochs were 'sedentary' when recorded counts were ⩽25 counts per 15 s. ST was calculated and fragmentation (SF) was assessed by calculating the number of sedentary bouts per sedentary hour. Associations of changes in ST and SF with changes in adiposity (body mass index (BMI), and fat mass index (FMI)) were examined using bivariate linear spline models. RESULTS: Increasing ST by 1% per year was associated with an increase in BMI of 0.08 kg m-2 per year (95% CI: 0.06-0.10; P<0.001) and FMI of 0.15 kg m-2 per year (0.11-0.19; P<0.001). Change in SF was associated with BMI and FMI (P<0.001). An increase of 1 bout per sedentary hour per year (that is, sedentary time becoming more fragmented) was associated with an increase in BMI of 0.07 kg m-2 per year (0.06-0.09; P<0.001) and an increase in FMI of 0.14 kg m-2 per year (0.10-0.18; P<0.001) over the 8 years period. However, an increase in SF between 9-12 years was associated with a 0.09 kg m-2 per year decrease in BMI (-0.18-0.00; P=0.046) and 0.11 kg m-2 per year decrease in FMI (-0.22-0.00; P=0.049). CONCLUSIONS: Increased ST and increased SF from 7-15 years were associated with increased adiposity. This is the first study to show age-specific associations between change in objectively measured sedentary behavior and adiposity after adjustment of moderate-to-vigorous-intensity physical activity in children and adolescents. The study suggests that, targeting sedentary behavior for obesity prevention may be most effective during periods in which we see large increases in ST.

Body mass index trajectories from 2 to 18 years - exploring differences between European cohorts.

BACKGROUND: In recent decades, there has been an increase in the prevalence of childhood overweight in most high-income countries. Within northern Europe, prevalence tends to be higher in the UK compared with the Scandinavian countries. We aimed to study differences in body mass index (BMI) trajectories between large cohorts of children from UK and Scandinavian populations. METHODS: We compared BMI trajectories in participants from the English Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children born in 1991-1993 (ALSPAC) (N = 6517), the Northern Finland Birth Cohorts born in 1966 (NFBC1966) (N = 3321) and 1986 (NFBC1986) (N = 4764), and the Danish Aarhus Birth Cohort born in 1990-1992 (ABC) (N = 1920). We used multilevel models to estimate BMI trajectories from 2 to 18 years. We explored whether cohort differences were explained by maternal BMI, height, education or smoking during pregnancy and whether differences were attributable to changes in the degree of skew in the BMI distribution. RESULTS: Differences in mean BMI between the cohorts were small but emerged early and persisted in most cases across childhood. Girls in ALSPAC had a higher BMI than all other cohorts throughout childhood, e.g. compared with the NFBC1986 BMI was 2.2-3.5% higher. For boys, the difference emerging over time (comparing the two NFBC's) exceeded the differences across populations (comparing NFBC1986, ABC and ALSPAC). BMI distribution demonstrated increasing right skew with age. CONCLUSION: Population-level differences between cohorts were small, tended to emerge very early, persisted across childhood, and demonstrated an increase in the right-hand tail of the BMI distribution.

First report of systemic toxoplasmosis in a New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri).

CASE HISTORY: A 1-year-old female New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri) was intermittently observed in the Otago region of New Zealand over an 11-month period, always dragging her hind flippers. In December 2012 the sea lion was found dead, after a period of several days being observed to be harassed by male sea lions. PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS: At gross postmortem examination the sea lion was in moderate body condition with signs of recent bite wounds and bruising. The lungs were dark and poorly inflated. Histological findings included meningoencephalomyelitis, radiculomyelitis of the cauda equina, myocarditis and myositis. Toxoplasmosis gondii organisms were detected histologically and following immunohistochemistry in the brain, spinal cord, spinal nerves and pelvic muscles. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY: Nested PCR analysis and sequencing confirmed the presence of T. gondii DNA in uterine and lung tissue. A variant type II T. gondii genotype was identified using multilocus PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. DIAGNOSIS: Systemic toxoplasmosis. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Infection with T. gondii involving the spinal cord and nerves was the likely cause of the paresis observed in this sea lion before death. Ultimately, death was attributed to crushing and asphyxiation by a male sea lion, presumably predisposed by impaired mobility. Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in a New Zealand sea lion highlights the possibility that this disease could play a role in morbidity and mortality in this endangered species, particularly in the recently established mainland populations that are close to feline sources of T. gondii oocysts.