Women in Academic Pathology: Pathways to Department Chair.

The Association of Pathology Chairs, an organization of American and Canadian academic pathology departments, has a record percent of women department chairs in its ranks (31%), although still not representative of the percent of women pathology faculty (43%). These women chairs were surveyed to determine what had impeded and what had facilitated their academic advancement before becoming chairs. The 2 most frequently identified impediments to their career advancement were heavy clinical loads and the lack of time, training, and/or funding to pursue research. Related to the second impediment, only one respondent became chair of a department which was in a top 25 National Institutes of Health-sponsored research medical school. Eighty-nine percent of respondents said that they had experienced gender bias during their careers in pathology, and 31% identified gender bias as an important impediment to advancement. The top facilitator of career advancement before becoming chairs was a supportive family. Strikingly, 98% of respondents have a spouse or partner, 75% have children, and 38% had children younger than 18 when becoming chairs. Additional top facilitators were opportunities to attend national meetings and opportunities to participate in leadership. Previous leadership experiences included directing a clinical service, a residency training program, and/or a medical student education program. These results suggest important ways to increase the success of women in academic pathology and increasing the percent of women department chairs, including supporting a family life and providing time, encouragement and resources for research, attending national meetings, and taking on departmental leadership positions.

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Pathology: The Present Landscape of Supervised Methods.

Increased interest in the opportunities provided by artificial intelligence and machine learning has spawned a new field of health-care research. The new tools under development are targeting many aspects of medical practice, including changes to the practice of pathology and laboratory medicine. Optimal design in these powerful tools requires cross-disciplinary literacy, including basic knowledge and understanding of critical concepts that have traditionally been unfamiliar to pathologists and laboratorians. This review provides definitions and basic knowledge of machine learning categories (supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning), introduces the underlying concept of the bias-variance trade-off as an important foundation in supervised machine learning, and discusses approaches to the supervised machine learning study design along with an overview and description of common supervised machine learning algorithms (linear regression, logistic regression, Naive Bayes, k-nearest neighbor, support vector machine, random forest, convolutional neural networks).

Barriers to Career Flexibility in Academic Medicine: A Qualitative Analysis of Reasons for the Underutilization of Family-Friendly Policies, and Implications for Institutional Change and Department Chair Leadership.

PURPOSE: Academic medical and biomedical professionals need workplace flexibility to manage the demands of work and family roles and meet their commitments to both, but often fail to use the very programs and benefits that provide flexibility. This study investigated the reasons for faculty underutilization of work-life programs. METHOD: As part of a National Institutes of Health-funded study, in 2010 the authors investigated attitudes of clinical and/or research biomedical faculty at the University of California, Davis, toward work-life policies, and the rationale behind their individual decisions regarding use of flexibility policies. The analysis used verbatim responses from 213 of 472 faculty (448 unstructured comments) to a series of open-ended survey questions. Questions elicited faculty members' self-reports of policy use, attitudes, and evaluations of the policies, and their perceptions of barriers that limited full benefit utilization. Data were coded and analyzed using a grounded theory approach. RESULTS: Faculty described how their utilization of workplace flexibility benefits was inhibited by organizational influences: the absence of reliable information about program eligibility and benefits, workplace norms and cultures that stigmatized program participation, influence of uninformed/unsupportive department heads, and concerns about how participation might burden coworkers, damage collegial relationships, or adversely affect workflow and grant funding. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding underuse of work-life programs is essential to maximize employee productivity and satisfaction, minimize turnover, and provide equal opportunities for career advancement to all faculty. The findings are discussed in relation to specific policy recommendations, implications for institutional change, and department chair leadership.

The Women in Medicine and Health Science program: an innovative initiative to support female faculty at the University of California Davis School of Medicine.

PROBLEM: Although more female physicians and scientists are choosing careers in academic medicine, women continue to be underrepresented as medical school faculty, particularly at the level of full professor and in leadership positions. Effective interventions to support women in academic medicine exist, but the nature and content of such programs varies widely. APPROACH: Women in medicine programs can play a critical role in supporting women's careers and can improve recruitment and retention of women by providing opportunities for networking, sponsorship, mentorship, and career development. The University of California Davis School of Medicine established the Women in Medicine and Health Science (WIMHS) program in 2000 to ensure the full participation and success of women in all roles within academic medicine. The authors describe the components and evolution of the WIMHS program. OUTCOMES: A steady increase in the number and percentage of female faculty and department chairs, as well as a relatively low departure rate for female faculty, strong and growing internal partnerships, and enthusiastic support from faculty and the school of medicine leadership, suggest that the WIMHS program has had a positive influence on recruitment and retention, career satisfaction, and institutional climate to provide a more inclusive and supportive culture for women. NEXT STEPS: Going forward, the WIMHS program will continue to advocate for broader institutional change to support female faculty, like creating an on-site child care program. Other institutions seeking to address the challenges facing female faculty may consider using the WIMHS program as a model to guide their efforts.

Implementation of the Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology: observations from the 2011 thyroid supplemental questionnaire of the College of American Pathologists.

CONTEXT: Although information about the Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology (TBSRTC) has been widely disseminated since its inception in 2007, the extent of its implementation and impact on daily practice has not been formally evaluated. OBJECTIVES: To assess the extent of uptake of TBSRTC across pathology laboratories and to evaluate its impact on daily practice by collating participant responses to the 2011 supplemental thyroid questionnaire of the College of American Pathologists. DESIGN: A questionnaire was designed to gather information about various aspects of TBSRTC and mailed in June 2011 to 2063 laboratories participating in the College of American Pathologists cytopathology interlaboratory comparison program. The participating laboratories' answers were collated and summarized. RESULTS: Seven hundred and seventy-seven laboratories (37.6%) returned the survey. Although 60.9% (n = 451) and 17.1% (n = 127) of laboratories reported using TBSRTC or planning to use it in the near future, respectively, 22% (n = 163) had no plans to implement TBSRTC. Of the latter, 32% (n = 70) stated that they were unaware of this classification system. The majority (78.3%, n = 343) of the laboratories used TBSRTC as published in the Thyroid Bethesda System atlas, whereas 21.7% (n = 95) used it with minor modifications. Most reported that the use of TBSRTC had caused either no change (n = 67, 15.2%) or only minor changes (n = 353, 80.2%) in the terminology and diagnostic criteria previously used in their laboratories. CONCLUSIONS: According to the collected data, TBSRTC is generally well implemented in pathology laboratories. However, because approximately a third of those not using this terminology are not aware of it, additional educational efforts regarding TBSRTC are warranted.

The Athena Breast Health Network: developing a rapid learning system in breast cancer prevention, screening, treatment, and care.

The term breast cancer covers many different conditions, whose clinical course ranges from indolent to aggressive. However, current practice in breast cancer prevention and care, and in breast cancer epidemiology, does not take into account the heterogeneity of the disease. A comprehensive understanding of the etiology and progression of different breast cancer subtypes would enable a more patient-centered approach to breast health care: assessing an individual's risk of getting specific subtypes of the disease, providing risk-based screening and prevention recommendations, and, for those diagnosed with the disease, tailored treatment options based on risk and timing of progression and mortality. The Athena Breast Health Network is an initiative of the five University of California medical and cancer centers to prototype this approach and to enable the development of a rapid learning system-connecting risk and outcome information from a heterogeneous patient population in real time and using new knowledge from research to continuously improve the quality of care. The Network is based on integrating clinical and research processes to create a comprehensive approach to accelerating patient-centered breast health care. Since its inception in 2009, the Network has developed a multi-site, transdisciplinary collaboration that enables the learning system. The five-campus collaboration has implemented a shared informatics platform, standardized electronic patient intake questionnaires, and common biospecimen protocols, as well as new clinical programs and multi-center research projects. The Athena Breast Health Network can serve as a model of a rapid learning system that integrates epidemiologic, behavioral, and clinical research with clinical care improvements.

Improving knowledge, awareness, and use of flexible career policies through an accelerator intervention at the University of California, Davis, School of Medicine.

The challenges of balancing a career and family life disproportionately affect women in academic health sciences and medicine, contributing to their slower career advancement and/or their attrition from academia. In this article, the authors first describe their experiences at the University of California, Davis, School of Medicine developing and implementing an innovative accelerator intervention designed to promote faculty work-life balance by improving knowledge, awareness, and access to comprehensive flexible career policies. They then summarize the results of two faculty surveys--one conducted before the implementation of their intervention and the second conducted one year into their three-year intervention--designed to assess faculty's use and intention to use the flexible career policies, their awareness of available options, barriers to their use of the policies, and their career satisfaction. The authors found that the intervention significantly increased awareness of the policies and attendance at related educational activities, improved attitudes toward the policies, and decreased perceived barriers to use. These results, however, were most pronounced for female faculty and faculty under the age of 50. The authors next discuss areas for future research on faculty use of flexible career policies and offer recommendations for other institutions of higher education--not just those in academic medicine--interested in implementing a similar intervention. They conclude that having flexible career policies alone is not enough to stem the attrition of female faculty. Such policies must be fully integrated into an institution's culture such that faculty are both aware of them and willing to use them.

Career flexibility and family-friendly policies: an NIH-funded study to enhance women's careers in biomedical sciences.

BACKGROUND: Although women receive nearly half of all doctoral degrees and show a high interest in academic careers, the pipeline is leaky. The challenge of balancing life course events with career trajectory is an important determinant leading to premature dropout or slower career advancement. This report describes the findings of the first phase of a National Institute of Health Office of Research on Women's Health (NIH ORWH)-funded study using survey and academic data for exploring satisfaction and awareness of/intent to use specific career flexibility options at the University of California, Davis (UCD). METHODS: All men and women faculty in the UCD's Schools of Medicine (SOM) and Veterinary Medicine (SVM) and College of Biological Science (CBS) were surveyed. Data also were obtained from deans' offices on use of family-friendly benefits by faculty. RESULTS: Three hundred twenty-five total survey responses were received from the SOM, 83 from SVM, and 64 from CBS, representing 42%, 46%, and 52% of their total faculty, respectively. In each school, large percentages of men (32%-60%) and women (46%-53%) faculty have children under 18 and a moderately high level of demand of family care responsibilities. Women were significantly more likely to be childless, particularly in the SOM (35% vs. 14%, p<0.001). For all schools, documented use of any family-friendly policy was low (0%-11.5%), as was awareness of policies, although both were significantly higher for women than for men. Significantly more women than men wanted to use policies or chose not to, particularly in the SOM (51% vs. 28%, p<0.001, and 37% vs. 23%, p=0.016, respectively), because of multiple barriers. Faculty in all schools agreed/highly agreed that policies were important to recruitment, retention, and career advancement. CONCLUSIONS: Family-friendly policies are pertinent to men and women, as both demonstrate interest and need, linked to increased career satisfaction. A family-friendly policy is important, particularly for women in the biomedical sciences.

Imaging findings of rhinocerebral mucormycosis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to describe common radiographic patterns that may be useful in predicting the diagnosis of rhinocerebral mucormycosis. METHODS: We retrospectively evaluated the imaging and clinical data of four males and one female, 3 to 72 years old, with rhinocerebral mucormycosis. RESULTS: All the patients presented with sinusitis and ophthalmological symptoms. Most of the patients (80%) had isointense lesions relative to brain in T1-weighted images. The signal intensity in T2-weighted images was more variable, with only one (20%) patient showing hyperintensity. A pattern of anatomic involvement affecting the nasal cavity, maxillary sinus, orbit, and ethmoid cells was consistently observed in all five patients (100%). Our series demonstrated a mortality rate of 60%. CONCLUSION: Progressive and rapid involvement of the cavernous sinus, vascular structures and intracranial contents is the usual evolution of rhinocerebral mucormycosis. In the context of immunosupression, a pattern of nasal cavity, maxillary sinus, ethmoid cells, and orbit inflammatory lesions should prompt the diagnosis of mucormycosis. Multiplanar magnetic resonance imaging shows anatomic involvement, helping in surgery planning. However, the prognosis is grave despite radical surgery and antifungals.

Cervical cytology specimen adequacy: patient management guidelines and optimizing specimen collection.

OBJECTIVE: To provide updated management guidelines according to cervical cytology specimen adequacy and techniques to optimize adequacy based on literature review and expert opinion. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Selected members of the American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology committee and invited experts conducted a literature review and discussed appropriate management and areas for future research emphasis. RESULTS: The guidelines recommend a repeat Pap test in a short interval of 2 to 4 months for most women when the cytology result is unsatisfactory. The preferred follow-up for women with a negative cytology result lacking an endocervical/transformation zone component or showing other quality indicators is a repeat Pap test in 12 months. Indications for an early repeat Pap test in 6 months are provided, and the influence of human papillomavirus testing results on management is discussed. Techniques for optimizing specimen adequacy are provided in detail. CONCLUSION: The specimen adequacy management guidelines will help promote uniform and optimal follow-up of patients receiving cervical cytology screening. The topics for future research emphasis will be helpful in promoting studies in needed areas.

Adequacy evaluation of fine-needle aspiration biopsy in the breast health clinic setting.

BACKGROUND: Breast health clinics (BHC) are an unfamiliar source of fine-needle aspiration biopsies (FNABs) in the U.S. and create challenges for adequacy evaluation. The current study described the experience with breast FNAB adequacy evaluation over a 2-year period, the issues that emerged, and the problem-solving employed to mitigate these issues. METHODS: The rate of unsatisfactory FNABs and core biopsies was determined for pathologists, BHC providers, and other clinicians and compared for two different periods. Adequacy criteria during both periods required correlation of the cytologic findings with the clinical and breast imaging findings, and did not require identification of a specific number of ductal epithelial cells. RESULTS: During the first time period, 25% of breast FNABs performed in the BHC received an inadequate evaluation versus 6% performed by pathologists and 14% performed by other clinicians. The BHC adequacy rate exceeded the 20% upper threshold recommended by the National Cancer Institute (NCI), and did not decrease after additional FNAB training. During the first time period, 24% of core biopsies received an adequacy evaluation of unsatisfactory. During the second time interval, the core biopsy volume increased and 12% received an unsatisfactory adequacy evaluation. CONCLUSIONS: It is appropriate to use noncellular features such as clinical and imaging findings as adequacy criteria for breast FNABs rather than identification of a minimal number of ductal epithelial cells. However, the 20% upper threshold for unsatisfactory breast FNABs recommended by the NCI was not appropriate for the BHC setting because the nature of the lesions seen in this type of practice can lead to an increase in inadequate specimens and cause unnecessary concern regarding quality. The authors recommended that laboratories receiving a large number of clinician-performed FNABs from a community population, especially a BHC, define their own unsatisfactory threshold above which they will investigate for technical or other problems.

Mission-based reporting in academic psychiatry.

OBJECTIVE: This article describes a data entry and analysis system called Mission-Based Reporting (MBR) that is used to measure faculty and department activities related to specific academic missions and objectives. The purpose of MBR is to provide a reporting tool useful in evaluating faculty effort and in helping chairs 1) to better assess their department's performance in relation to other departments and their school as a whole, 2) to plan for the future, and 3) to reward individual faculty members. METHODS: Mission-Based Reporting summaries, generated for each faculty member and each department, illustrate contributions to each of four missions: research, teaching, clinical service, and administrative/public service. Data from MBR can be used to evaluate whether faculty scholarly contributions are appropriate to their rank and series. That report provides data from the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at the University of California and the University of California Davis School of Medicine (UC Davis). CONCLUSIONS: Mission-Based Reporting is a useful management tool for department and school administrators. Improvements in implementation are proposed.

Significance of subclassifying high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions into moderate dysplasia/CIN II versus severe dysplasia/CIN III/CIS in the Bethesda System terminology.

Recent revisions of the Bethesda System (TBS III) did not modify the original two-tiered low-grade and high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL/HSIL) terminology and continued to offer the option of subclassifying HSIL into moderate dysplasia/cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN II) and severe dysplasia/CIN III. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the significance of the HSIL moderate dysplasia/CIN II subclassification and the causes of Pap test-biopsy discordance for this subclassification. HSIL/moderate dysplasia/CIN II Pap tests were identified from the University of California Davis Medical Center laboratory file for a 5-yr period (1997-2001) and correlated with follow-up cervical biopsies. Cervical biopsies with CIN II diagnoses were identified from the laboratory file for the same time period, and correlated with their preceding Pap test. Discordant Pap test-biopsy pairs from either group were reviewed by two pathologists for the following causes for discordance: cytologic overcall or undercall, biopsy overcall or undercall, and sampling error or possible lesion regression. During the review period, 161 of 378 total HSIL Pap tests had a HSIL/CIN II result (42%), and 81/161 (50%) had a follow-up cervical biopsy. 38/81 (47%) were concordant, and 43 (53%) were discordant; 39/43 discordant cases had both Pap test and biopsy slides available for review. CIN I was the most common discordant biopsy diagnosis. Sampling error was the most common cause of discordance and was three times more common than the other causes; 536 CIN cervical biopsies with CIN were identified in the laboratory files during this review period, and 108/536 (20%) received a diagnosis of CIN II. Sixty-seven of 108 (62%) had a preceding Pap test result available; 32 of the 67 (48%) had a concordant preceding Pap test with a HSIL/CIN II result, and 35 (52%) were discordant; 32/35 discordant cases had both Pap test and biopsy slides available for review. LSIL was the most common discordant Pap test diagnosis. Sampling error was also the most common cause of discordance, and was also three time more frequent than any other cause for discordance. HSIL/CIN II is a meaningful subclassification in our laboratory. We support the TBS III recommendation for optional subclassification of HSIL and suggest that individual laboratories may wish to monitor use of this subclassification through internal correlation studies.

Role of Pap Test terminology and age in the detection of carcinoma invasive and carcinoma in situ in medically underserved California women.

Our goals were to evaluate Pap Test findings classified by the Bethesda system, and follow up biopsies from participants in the California Breast and Cervical Cancer Control Program (Ca-BCCCP) for: 1) correlation in the detection of carcinoma in situ (CIS) and carcinoma invasive (CI), and 2) age-related trends, with discussion in the context of the 2001 ASCCP Management Guidelines. Women (n = 52,339) who had their initial screening Pap Tests with Ca-BCCCP between January 1995-December 1999 were followed for diagnostic services through December 2000. Descriptive and analytical methods were used in the analysis. Of the Pap results, 81.9% were negative, 10.6% showed infection, 4.7% showed an epithelial abnormality as defined by the Bethesda system (atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASCUS), low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL), or high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL)), 0.1% showed squamous-cell cancer (SCC), and 2.7% showed other or unsatisfactory. Subsequent to the initial Pap Test, follow-up results of carcinoma in situ (CIS) and carcinoma invasive (CI) accounted for 0.36% and 0.05% of the population, respectively. Among HSIL Pap Tests (n = 285), 40.7% had follow-up showing CIS. Among SCC Pap Tests, 17.9% had follow-up results of CIS and 28.6% CI. Of the 191 patients with CIS as a follow-up finding, the initial Pap smear showed: HSIL 60.7%, SCC 2.6%, LSIL 10.5%, ASCUS 13.6%, and negative or infection 9.9%. Of the 27 patients with CI, the initial Pap Test showed: HSIL 40.7%, SCC 29.6%, LSIL 7.4%, ASCUS 7.4%, and negative or infection 11.1%. Pap diagnoses of other or unsatisfactory accounted for 2.6% of the Pap results from patients with CIS and 3.7% of Pap results from patients with CI. Except for LSIL, there was an increasing age trend in the number of cases in each of Pap results, with the exception of age 65+ yr. However, the ratio of LSIL and ASCUS to negative cases decreased with age. (P < 0.0001 and 0.0293, respectively). HSIL Pap results indicate a reasonably high probability of CIS and CI. However, approximately 1/3 of patients with CIS and 1/4 of patients with CI presented with Pap diagnoses of less severity than HSIL. When a negative Pap Test result is chosen as reference group, there is a negative age trend for LSIL and ASCUS, and no age trend for other results. These findings all have important implications in the design of follow-up strategies, and support the 2001 ASCCP Consensus Guidelines for the Management of Women with Cervical Abnormalities.