Variation in monthly and seasonal elevation use impacts behavioral and dietary flexibility in Rhinopithecus bieti.

Black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) rely on behavioral and dietary flexibility to survive in temperate latitudes at high-elevation habitats characterized by climate and resource seasonality. However, little is known about how elevation influences their behavioral and dietary flexibility at monthly or seasonal scales. We studied an isolated R. bieti population at Mt. Lasha in the Yunling Provincial Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China, between May 2008 and August 2016 to assess the impacts of elevation on feeding behavior and diet. Across our sample, R. bieti occupied elevations between 3031 and 3637 m above mean sea level (amsl), with a 315.1 m amsl range across months and a 247.3 m amsl range across seasons. Contrary to expectations, individuals spent less time feeding when ranging across higher elevations. Lichen consumption correlated with elevation use across months and seasons, with individuals spending more time feeding on this important resource at higher elevations. Leaf consumption only correlated with elevation use during the spring. Our results suggest that R. bieti do not maximize their food intake at higher elevations and that monthly and seasonal changes in lichen and leaf consumption largely explain variation in elevation use. These findings shed light on the responses of R. bieti to environmental change and offer insight into strategies for conserving their habitats in the face of anthropogenic disturbance.

Effects of provisioning on the activity budget and foraging strategies of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) in the Baima Snow Mountain Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China.

Provisioning can significantly affect the ranging patterns, foraging strategies, and time budget of wild primates. In this study, we document for the first time, the effects of provisioning on the activity budget and foraging effort in an Asian colobine. Over 3-years, we used an instantaneous scanning method at 10-min intervals to collect data on the activity budget of a semiprovisioned breeding band (SPB) of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) (42-70 individuals) at Xiangguqing (Tacheng), Yunnan, China. We then compared the effects of provisioning in our study band with published data on a sympatric wild nonprovisioned breeding band (NPB) of R. bieti (ca. 360 monkeys) at the same field site. The SPB spent 25.6% of their daytime feeding, 17.1% traveling, 46.9% resting, and 10.3% socializing. In comparison, the NPB devoted more time to feeding (34.9%) and socializing (14.1%), less time to resting (31.3%), and was characterized by a greater foraging effort (1.74 versus 0.96, foraging effort = (feeding + traveling)/resting; see Methods). There was no difference between bands in the proportion of their activity budget devoted to traveling (15.7% vs. 17.1%). In addition, the SPB exhibited a more consistent activity budget and foraging effort across all seasons of the year compared to the NPB. These findings suggest that the distribution, availability, and productivity of naturally occurring feeding sites is a major determinant of the behavioral strategies and activity budget of R. bieti. Finally, a comparison of our results with data on six nonprovisioned R. bieti bands indicates that caution must be raised in meta-analyses or intraspecific comparisons of primate behavioral ecology that contain data generated from both provisioned and nonprovisioned groups.

Adaptations to a cold climate promoted social evolution in Asian colobine primates.

The biological mechanisms that underpin primate social evolution remain poorly understood. Asian colobines display a range of social organizations, which makes them good models for investigating social evolution. By integrating ecological, geological, fossil, behavioral, and genomic analyses, we found that colobine primates that inhabit colder environments tend to live in larger, more complex groups. Specifically, glacial periods during the past 6 million years promoted the selection of genes involved in cold-related energy metabolism and neurohormonal regulation. More-efficient dopamine and oxytocin pathways developed in odd-nosed monkeys, which may have favored the prolongation of maternal care and lactation, increasing infant survival in cold environments. These adaptive changes appear to have strengthened interindividual affiliation, increased male-male tolerance, and facilitated the stepwise aggregation from independent one-male groups to large multilevel societies.

Ontogenetic Development of Sexual Dimorphism in Body Mass of Wild Black-and-White Snub-Nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti).

Sexual dimorphism exists widely in animals, manifesting in different forms, such as body size, color, shape, unique characteristics, behavior, and sound. Of these, body mass dimorphism is the most obvious. Studies of evolutionary and ontogenetic development and adaptation mechanisms of animals' sexual dimorphism in body mass (SDBM), allow us to understand how environment, social group size, diet, and other external factors have driven the selection of sexual dimorphism. There are fewer reports of the ontogenetic development of sexual dimorphism in body mass in Rhinopithecus. This study explores the ontogenetic development pattern of SDBM in wild black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (R. bieti), and the causes resulting in extreme sexual dimorphism compared to other colobines. A significant dimorphism with a ratio of 1.27 (p < 0.001) appears when females enter the reproductive period around six years old, reaching a peak (1.85, p < 0.001) when males become sexually mature. After the age of eight, the SDBM falls to 1.78, but is still significant (p < 0.001). The results also indicate that males had a longer body mass growth period than females (8 years vs. 5 years); females in larger breeding units had a significantly higher SDBM than those in smaller ones (2.12 vs. 1.93, p < 0.01). A comparative analysis with other colobines further clarifies that Rhinopithecus and Nasalis, which both have multilevel social organization, have the highest degree of SDBM among all colobines. The large SDBM in R. bieti can be explained through Bergman's and Rensch's rules. Overall, environmental adaptation, a distinctive alimentary system, and a complex social structure contribute to R. bieti having such a remarkable SDBM compared to other colobines. In addition, we found that females' choice for males may not be significantly related to the development of SDBM.

Taxonomy on three allied genera within Arcypterini (Orthoptera: Acrididae) from Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, China.

The generic diagnosis of three allied genera, Leuconemacris Zheng, 1988, Asulconotoides Liu, 1984 and Asulconotus Ying, 1974, are compared and redescribed. Four new species, Leuconemacris acuminata, sp. nov., L. xinlongensis, sp. nov., L. muliensis, sp. nov. and Asulconotus acarinatus, sp. nov. are described and illustrated. Two new combinations are established: Asulconotoides asulcata (Zheng, 1988) comb. nov. = Leuconemacris asulcata Zheng, 1988 and Asulconotoides microptera (Zheng, 1988), comb. nov. = Leuconemacris microptera Zheng, 1988. All updated keys to genera and species are given.

Effects of food availability and climate on the activity budget of Shortridge's langur (Trachypithecus shortridgei) in the Drung Valley, Gaoligong Mountains, China.

Food availability and climate represent environmental factors that affect species' social behavior, ranging patterns, diet, and activity budget. From August 2012 to September 2013, we examined the effects of seasonal changes in food availability, temperature, and rainfall on the diet and behavioral ecology of Shortridge's langur (Trachypithecus shortridgei) an Endangered primate species inhabiting moist evergreen broadleaf forests in the Eastern Himalayas. Our field site represents the northernmost latitudinal distribution of this species. Data were collected using scan sampling at 10 min intervals, and analyzed based on generalized linear models. The results indicate that the langurs experienced two feeding peaks (9:00 and 17:00) and two traveling peaks (10:00 and 19:00) during each day. Periods of rest, mainly occurred between 10:00 and 13:00, and overnight. Feeding accounted for 38.5% of the daily activity budget, followed by resting (35%), traveling (24.5%), and socializing (2%). During periods when young leaves were most available, the langurs increased feeding time on young leaves (35% vs. 4%). During periods of maximum fruit availability, the langurs decreased total time spent feeding (36.6% vs. 40.4%), devoted more time to traveling (28.1% vs. 21%), and increased time spent consuming fruit (49.1% vs. 11.8%). During the winter, the langurs increased their consumption of mature leaves (44.5%) and reduced time spent traveling (20.2% vs. 25.4%). Overall, time spent resting was greatest in the spring (47.5%), time spent feeding was greatest during the summer (51.1%), and time spent in traveling was greatest in the autumn (33.2%). The frequency of social interactions remained relatively constant throughout the year. Foraging effort was greatest in the summer, when fruits dominated the diet. Like other species of temperate langurs, T. shortridgei devoted less time to resting, more time to feeding, and was characterized by a greater year-round foraging effort than tropical/subtropical langurs.

Faecalibacter rhinopitheci sp. nov., a bacterium isolated from the faeces of Rhinopithecus bieti.

A novel Gram-stain-negative strain, WQ 117T, isolated from the faeces of Rhinopithecus bieti collected at Yunnan Snub-nosed Monkey National Park, Yunnan province, PR China, was subjected to a polyphasic taxonomic study. The results of phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences indicated that the isolate represented a member of the genus Faecalibacter, sharing 97.64 % sequence similarity with the type strain Faecalibacter macacae YIM 102668T. The G+C content of the genomic DNA of WQ117T was 30.5 mol%. The predominant isoprenoid quinone was MK-6. The major cellular fatty acids was iso-C15 : 0. The whole genome average nucleotide identity (gANI) values and the digital DNA-DNA hybridization values between WQ 117T and YIM 102668T were 79.66 % and 22.20 %, respectively. Growth occurred at 0-50 °C (optimally at 28-35 °C), pH 7.0-9.0 (optimally at pH 8.0) and with 0-2 % (w/v) NaCl (optimally without NaCl). On the basis of the taxonomic evidence, a novel species, Faecalibacter rhinopitheci sp. nov., is proposed. The type strain is WQ 117T (=KCTC 82394T=CCTCC AA 2020027T).

An automatic method for removing empty camera trap images using ensemble learning.

Camera traps often produce massive images, and empty images that do not contain animals are usually overwhelming. Deep learning is a machine-learning algorithm and widely used to identify empty camera trap images automatically. Existing methods with high accuracy are based on millions of training samples (images) and require a lot of time and personnel costs to label the training samples manually. Reducing the number of training samples can save the cost of manually labeling images. However, the deep learning models based on a small dataset produce a large omission error of animal images that many animal images tend to be identified as empty images, which may lead to loss of the opportunities of discovering and observing species. Therefore, it is still a challenge to build the DCNN model with small errors on a small dataset. Using deep convolutional neural networks and a small-size dataset, we proposed an ensemble learning approach based on conservative strategies to identify and remove empty images automatically. Furthermore, we proposed three automatic identifying schemes of empty images for users who accept different omission errors of animal images. Our experimental results showed that these three schemes automatically identified and removed 50.78%, 58.48%, and 77.51% of the empty images in the dataset when the omission errors were 0.70%, 1.13%, and 2.54%, respectively. The analysis showed that using our scheme to automatically identify empty images did not omit species information. It only slightly changed the frequency of species occurrence. When only a small dataset was available, our approach provided an alternative to users to automatically identify and remove empty images, which can significantly reduce the time and personnel costs required to manually remove empty images. The cost savings were comparable to the percentage of empty images removed by models.

Male and female birth attendance and assistance in a species of non-human primate (Rhinopithecus bieti).

Birth attendance, or midwifery service, is an important characteristic in human evolution, and has been argued to separate our lineage from other taxa in the animal kingdom. Recent studies, however, indicate that similar or analogous behaviors also may occur in a small number of nonhuman primate species. Here, we report the first case of both male and female attendance and female birth assistance in a wild species of nonhuman primate, the black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti). At our field site in Yunnan, China we observed a diurnal birth event in which the leader male of a one-male unit (OMU) remained in close- proximity (0-2 m) to the parturient, groomed her, and remained vigilant over a five hour pre- and postpartum period. In addition, a multiparous female member of the OMU also remained in close proximity to the soon-to-be mother, helped to pull the neonate from the birth canal, took the neonate from the new mother within 15 s of the birth, held the infant for 20 min, and then severed the umbilical cord. For the next several days the leader male traveled in close-proximity to the new mother and four days after the birth event, we observed him to share food with her. Given that diurnal births are extremely rare in this primate species; it remains unclear the degree to which the events we observed commonly occur during nighttime births. We argue that adult male and female black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys are highly attracted to young infants, and birth attendance and birth assistance in this, and certain other primate species, may play a critical role in maternal and infant survivorship.

Preliminary study on dietary selection in Shortridge's langurs ( Trachypithecus shortridgei) from China.

Understanding dietary selection and feeding strategies is important for the conservation and management of endangered primate species. Here, we conducted a preliminary study on the diet and feeding behavior of endangered Shortridge's langurs ( Trachypithecus shortridgei) within the Drung River Valley (Dulongjiang) in southwestern China. The study site lies at a high latitude (N27°47.5') and elevation (1 900 m a.s.l.) and is characterized by substantial annual rainfall (2 745.1 mm). From August 2012 to September 2013, we observed five groups of langurs and analyzed their overall food composition and dietary variation in spring and autumn. To understand their dietary adaptations to the distinctive habitat of the Drung River Valley, we also compared the diet of Shortridge's langurs to that of other Trachypithecus species inhabiting different environments. Results indicated that T. shortridgei fed on 52 plant species, 23 of which each accounted for ≥1% of their annual feeding time. Their primary dietary components included leaves (46.2%, young, mature, and petioles), fruits (28.7%, unripe 17.6%, ripe 11.1%), and mosses (10.2%). The langurs mainly consumed mature (34.2%) and young leaves (27.5%) in spring and ripe fruits (39.4%) and mature leaves (24.7%) in autumn. Two species of moss ( Macrothamnium macrocarpum and Scapania verrucosa, 21.2% of annual feeding time), which are usually found growing together on cliffs, played a relatively important role in the diet of T. shortridgei. The langurs mainly consumed ripe fruits of Saurauia napaulensis (7.1%) and Dendropanax burmanicus (7.1%), which were abundant at lower elevations. Trachypithecus species in temperate forests consumed more fruits and seeds but fewer leaves (similar mature leaves but fewer young leaves) than those species in tropical forests, which may be related to their availability and abundance. Compared to Trachypithecus species in temperate forests, the higher proportion of mosses and mature leaves but fewer young leaves in the annual diet of T. shortridgei are likely a response to the distinctive Drung River Valley habitat. Therefore, conservation of the main food plants of this threatened species could be vital for its survival and conservation management.

Correction to: Review of GPS collar deployments and performance on nonhuman primates.

In the original publication of the article, figure 1 was wrongly published as a duplication.

Review of GPS collar deployments and performance on nonhuman primates.

Over the past 20 years, GPS collars have emerged as powerful tools for the study of nonhuman primate (hereafter, "primate") movement ecology. As the size and cost of GPS collars have decreased and performance has improved, it is timely to review the use and success of GPS collar deployments on primates to date. Here we compile data on deployments and performance of GPS collars by brand and examine how these relate to characteristics of the primate species and field contexts in which they were deployed. The compiled results of 179 GPS collar deployments across 17 species by 16 research teams show these technologies can provide advantages, particularly in adding to the quality, quantity, and temporal span of data collection. However, aspects of this technology still require substantial improvement in order to make deployment on many primate species pragmatic economically. In particular, current limitations regarding battery lifespan relative to collar weight, the efficacy of remote drop-off mechanisms, and the ability to remotely retrieve data need to be addressed before the technology is likely to be widely adopted. Moreover, despite the increasing utility of GPS collars in the field, they remain substantially more expensive than VHF collars and tracking via handheld GPS units, and cost considerations of GPS collars may limit sample sizes and thereby the strength of inferences. Still, the overall high quality and quantity of data obtained, combined with the reduced need for on-the-ground tracking by field personnel, may help defray the high equipment cost. We argue that primatologists armed with the information in this review have much to gain from the recent, substantial improvements in GPS collar technology.

The effective use of camera traps to document the northernmost distribution of the western black crested gibbon in China.

Gibbons represent a highly successful radiation of four genera and 20 species of Asian apes that, in response to recent habitat fragmentation and deforestation, are threatened with extinction. China has six species of gibbons, each of which is critically endangered. We present new biogeographical information on the distribution of the black crested gibbon (Nomascus concolor). Four subspecies of N. concolor have been described: three of them are present east of the Mekong River (Nomascus concolor jingdongensis, N. c. concolor and N. c. lu); and another is found west of the Mekong River (N. c. furvogaster). In addition, there has been speculation that gibbons exist in the Biluo Snow Mountains, between the Mekong and Salween basins. To clarify the biogeography of this species, from April 2011 to January 2012 and from January 2016 to September 2018, we conducted interviews with local villagers, completed line transect surveys, monitored gibbon calls, and placed 30 camera traps in the forest canopy. On October 30, 2016, we recorded gibbon's calls. On July 5, 2016, our camera traps obtained one image of a male gibbon, and on February 1 and 8, 2017, we captured two independent images of an adult female gibbon on Zhiben Mountains. Based on the black crest on the head, clearly visible in the photographs, the gibbons are N. c. furvogaster. Evidence from interviews and survey records indicate that N. c. furvogaster once was present in the Zhiben Mountains, at an altitude of between 2000 and 2700 m. Between 1990 and 2000, some 6-7 groups still existed in Caojian, Laowo and adjacent areas. Unfortunately, in the absence of an effective conservation strategy, the population was extirpated by hunters. The remaining forest in the Zhiben Mountains is highly fragmented, and most of the suitable habitat for gibbons has been lost. Therefore, we expect that this newly found gibbon population is under extreme anthropogenic pressure. It is imperative that further investigations of this gibbon population be conducted immediately, and that the local and national governments implement effective conservation plans, including educating the local communities to protect this critically endangered primate population.

Effects of reflective warning markers on wildlife.

Light pollution has become one of the top issues in environmental pollution, especially concerning how secondary light pollution, such as from traffic reflective materials, influences animal distribution and behavior. In this study, 15 camera traps were set up at sites with or without reflective warning markers (RWM) in coniferous forests on Cangshan Mountain located in Dali Prefecture, China. The results showed that the number of independent photographs and species at sites without RWMs were significantly higher than those at sites with RWMs. Significant differences were found between daytime and nighttime composition of bird species and non-flying mammals between two sites. This study found that RWMs had negative effects on wildlife, with the avoidance response of birds to RWMs being more obvious than that of animals at daytime. It is recommended that the use of reflective materials be carefully considered, especially in protected areas.

Preliminary report on Sichuan golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana) at Laohegou Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China.

Comparative studies of subspecies under different ecological environments offer insights into intraspecies evolutionary adaptive mechanisms. Golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) include three subspecies in China classified mainly by their morphological variations: R. r. roxellana (Sichuan and Gansu province), R. r. qinlingensis (Shaanxi province) and R. r. hubeiensis (Hubei province). These three subspecies live in three isolated area with different environments. Past works focused on the last two subspecies, but little information of habitat and behaviors of the nominated subspecies (R. r. roxellana) is available to date. We conducted a two-year study on the diet, activity budget, home range and social organization of 4 herds of R. r. roxellana, based on a total of 106 days' observation in Laohegou (LHG) Nature Reserve, Sichuan province. By using scan sampling method, our results suggest that the R. r roxellana feeds predominantly on leaves (77.5%), and spends more time feeding (40.0%) and resting (27.0%) while compared to the other two subspecies. Kernel Density Estimation Method based on GPS technology confirms that R. r roxellana has relatively larger home ranges (49.1 km2). The unit size (8.3 ± 3.5 individuals) of R. r roxellana is also smaller. Therefore, it is possible that differences in food availability in relation to habitats have important impacts on the feeding strategy and social system of the golden snub-nosed monkey. These results provide data to further explore intraspecific adaptations of living primates.

Black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) feeding behavior in a degraded forest fragment: clues to a stressed population.

Rapid global deforestation has forced many of the world's primates to live in fragmented habitats, making the understanding of their behavioral responses to degraded and fragmented habitats a key challenge for their future protection and management. The black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) is an endangered species endemic to southwest China. The forest habitat ranges from near-continuous to fragmented. In this study, we investigated the activity budget and diet of a R. bieti population that live in an isolated and degraded habitat patch at Mt. Lasha in Yunnan Province, near the current southern limit of the species. We used our data along with data from six other sites in more-continuous habitats across its range to model factors that predict stress, including feeding effort and time feeding on lichens against potential predictive parameters. Models showed feeding effort across all sites increased with increasing altitude and latitude, and with decreasing food species diversity. There was also a strong positive relationship between feeding effort and time feeding lichens. The Mt. Lasha R. bieti population exploited a total of 36 food species, spending 80.2% of feeding time feeding on lichens, Bryoria spp. and Usnea longissima. These figures are more comparable to those living in the north than those living in the mid- and southern part of the species' range. Given the models for feeding effort and time feeding on lichens, the unexpectedly high time spend feeding on lichens and feeding effort relative to latitude and elevation are suggestive of a stressed population at Mt. Lasha.

Male Dispersal Pattern in Golden Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Qinling Mountains and its Conservation Implication.

Golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) is one of the most endangered primate species found in China, exhibiting multilevel society consisting of several one-male-females together with their offspring units (OMU), and all-male units (AMU). Female dispersal patterns of the species within herd have been well documented, whereas those of the males within or between herds are still poorly understood. Our results based a long-term observation indicate that more than half of sub-adult males, and half of the deposed males that stayed a short period in OMU disperse between herds, three of them established their own OMU in new herd after the dispersal. Smaller number of the sub-adult and adult males, compared with adult females, stayed in natal herd, implying sub-adult males started dispersing and male-biased dispersal occurred between herds. High frequencies of resident males were wounded as their OUMs were taken over, and resident males co-operation defend bachelor males were found. Mating competition among males within the herd may have contributed to the scenarios of male-biased dispersal. The results also suggest that maintaining connection between isolated herds and establishing the corridors among the fragmented habitats for the species will greatly benefit increasing its gene flow and promoting conservation status.

Birth seasonality and pattern in black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Mt. Lasha, Yunnan.

Seasonal variation in environmental factors is vital to the regulation of seasonal reproduction in primates. Consequently, long-term systematic data is necessary to clarify the birth seasonality and pattern of primates in highly seasonal environments. This study indicated that black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Mt. Lasha exhibited strict birth seasonality with a pulse model. Infants were born with a certain degree of synchronization. Birth distribution showed three birth peaks, and the birth pattern showed a "V" style in even-numbered years and a gradual increase in odd-numbered years. The beginning date, end date and median birth date were earlier in even-numbered years than those in odd-numbered years. The higher latitude of their habitats, earlier birth date, shorter birth period, fewer birth peaks and stronger birth synchrony might be adaptations for strongly seasonal variation in climate and food resources. After the summer solstice when daylight length began to gradually shorten, R. bieti at Mt. Lasha started to breed during the period with the highest environmental temperature and food availability, which implied that photoperiod may be the proximate factor triggering the onset of estrus and mating. It appears that R. bieti coincided conception and mid-lactation with the peak in staple foods, and weaning with the peak in high quality of foods. Thus, food availability was the ultimate factor regulating reproductive seasonality, and photoperiod was the proximate factor fine-turning the coordination between seasonal breeding and food availability.

Satellite telemetry and social modeling offer new insights into the origin of primate multilevel societies.

Multilevel societies (MLS), in which polygynous reproductive units are nested in a larger social matrix, represent a highly complex social system documented only in a small number of mammalian species. Using long-term behavioural data, satellite telemetry and social network analysis, we present a new framework for understanding the function and social dynamics of the golden snub-nosed monkey MLS. Here we show that several one-male units form a cohesive breeding band that associates with one or more all-male units to form a herd. Herds seasonally aggregate and exchange members, thus facilitating gene flow and inbreeding avoidance. This MLS evolved from the aggregation of independent one-male, multifemale units that characterize ancestral Asian colobines; the evolutionary pathway leading to this MLS contrasts with that proposed for African papionins, which appear to have undergone internal fissioning of multimale-multifemale groups. The results suggest that both environmental and phylogenetic factors are important in the evolution of a primate MLS.

The use of camera traps to identify the set of scavengers preying on the carcass of a golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana).

There exists very limited information on the set of scavengers that feed on the carcasses of wild primates. Here, we describe, based on information collected using a remote camera trap, carnivores consuming/scavenging the carcass of a wild golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Laohegou Nature Reserve, Sichuan, China. During a 3 month behavioral and ecology study of a band of golden snub-nosed monkeys (March through May 2013), we encountered the carcass of an adult male (male golden snub-nosed monkeys weigh approximately 12-16 kg). After examining the dead monkey, we returned it to the death site and set out a camera trap to record the behavior and identity of scavengers. Over the course of 25 days, we collected 4145 photographs taken by the camera trap. Scavengers identified from these photographs include a masked civet (Paguma larvata), Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus), large-billed crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) and the chestnut rat (Rattus fulvescens). No member of the golden snub-nosed monkey's social group, which was composed of approximately 120 individuals, was found to return to the general area of the death site. The masked civet fed principally on the face and intestines of the corpse at night, while the black bear consumed most of the body of the dead monkey during both the daytime and nighttime. These two taxa consumed virtually the entire carcass in one week. We suggest that the use of camera traps offers a powerful research tool to identify the scavenger community of a given ecosystem.