Developmental relations of achievement goals and affect in physical education.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to examine the developmental relationships between achievement goals and affect in school physical education. METHOD: The study sample comprised 1063 (girls 546) Finnish Grade 6 students (M = 12.27 years ± 0.33 at the beginning of the study). The participants in the study were asked to provide annual assessments about their perceptions of achievement goals, enjoyment, and anxiety. The assessments were conducted four times over three consecutive years. RESULTS: The results indicated that mastery-approach goals were positively associated with enjoyment (between-level), whereas both mastery-avoidance and performance-avoidance goals were positively associated with anxiety (between-level). Additionally, the associations between repeated measures (within-level) of mastery-approach goals and enjoyment were similar each year, whereas mastery- and performance-approach/avoidance goals were consistently associated with anxiety within the same year. Girls reported lower performance-approach goals and enjoyment but higher mastery-avoidance goals and anxiety than boys. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that mastery approach goals exhibit a positive correlation with favorable affective reactions, while performance-avoidance goals demonstrate a connection with maladaptive responses. Physical education teachers should endeavor to establish mastery-oriented goals for their students from the outset of the educational process.

Longitudinal Associations Between Enjoyment of Physical Education, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, and Muscular Fitness Among Finnish Adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: Students' experiences in physical education (PE) can shape future physical activity (PA) behaviors. PE enjoyment is associated with PA; however, the relationship between PE enjoyment and fitness has not been extensively investigated. The aim of this study was to examine if changes in PE enjoyment were associated with changes in cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and muscular fitness (MF) among Finnish adolescents. METHODS: Study participants were students (n = 1147; 11.27 [±0.32] years at baseline) attending public schools in Finland. Data were collected yearly (2017-2021). The 20 m shuttle run assessed CRF, curl-up/push-up tests assessed MF, and the enjoyment subscale of the Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2 measured PE enjoyment. The random intercept cross-lagged panel model, including repeated measures (within-level) and latent levels (between-level) of PE enjoyment, CRF and MF, was tested. Sex, body mass index, moderate to vigorous PA, and peak height velocity were included as covariates in the analysis. RESULTS: Over 5 years, PE enjoyment decreased, CRF increased until Timepoint 3, and MF remained stable. Positive associations between PE enjoyment and fitness were observed, indicating the greater the PE enjoyment, the higher the fitness. For PE enjoyment, CRF and MF repeated measures were positively associated with measurement of the next year. PE enjoyment was positively related to CRF and MF the years thereafter. CONCLUSION: Our findings highlight the importance of quality PE experiences for enjoyment and fitness gains during the transition from primary to secondary school. These findings are important given youth fitness levels are associated with future health status.

How to design and establish a national school-based physical fitness monitoring and surveillance system for children and adolescents: A 10-step approach recommended by the FitBack network.

BACKGROUND: Providing individual- and population-level data on children's physical fitness (PF) is a crucial public health and education priority. However, few national fitness monitoring or surveillance systems are currently in practice internationally. We aim to summarize the current European PF monitoring and surveillance systems for school-aged children and to provide experience-based guidelines on how to design such systems. METHODS: The FitBack network consists of experts from diverse backgrounds with the common interest to improve the accessibility of PF monitoring for young people globally. Through FitBack network, we identified and compared the national or regional PF monitoring and surveillance systems currently in operation across Europe. We formulated a 10-step approach for designing and establishing one's own system, based on analysis of experienced strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to monitoring childhood fitness. RESULTS: We identified a total of eight PF monitoring systems in Finland, France, Galicia of Spain, Hungary, Lithuania, Portugal, Serbia, and Slovenia. The FitBack network recommends the following steps for designing and establishing one's own system: (1) set up mission statements and aims, (2) involve stakeholders, (3) utilize scientific background, (4) governance structure, (5) ensure sufficient funding, (6) data management planning, (7) provide meaningful feedback, (8) conduct pilot testing, (9) plan implementation process, and (10) invest in communication with stakeholders. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides an updated overview of the best practices for school-aged children's fitness monitoring and surveillance in Europe. Additionally, it offers a 10-step approach to assist in the creation of similar systems in Europe or globally.

Trajectories of osteogenic physical activity in children and adolescents: A 3-year cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: We explored the latent profiles based on locomotor skills and cardiorespiratory fitness in Finnish schoolchildren and examined their associations with latent growth curves of osteogenic physical activity (PA) over three years. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. METHODS: Altogether 1147 Finnish adolescents aged 11-13 years participated in the study. Osteogenic PA in terms of osteogenic index (OI) was calculated based on acceleration peak histograms using all of the peaks with acceleration >1.3 g. Locomotor skills were assessed using the five-leap and side-to-side jumping tests and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) using 20-metre shuttle run test. The latent growth curve models for the locomotor skills and cardiorespiratory fitness profiles were tested to examine the longitudinal development of OI scores over time three years (from T0 to T3). RESULTS: OI scores were lower amongst children in the "Low locomotor profile" compared with "Moderate" and "High locomotor" profiles. The OI scores linearly decreased from T0 to T3 in each locomotor profile and the decrease was similar in all the profiles. Moreover, OI scores were lower in the "Low CRF profile" compared with "Moderate" and "High CRF" profiles. The OI scores decreased in each profile over time, but the decrease was steepest in the "Low CRF profile", whereas "Moderate" and "High CRF profiles" had similar developmental trajectories. CONCLUSIONS: Children with the highest locomotor skills and higher CRF accumulate more osteogenic PA than their least skilful and fit peers, which can have important implications on bone health in this critical period for bone growth.

A scalable school-based intervention to increase early adolescents' motor competence and health-related fitness.

Schools are key settings for the promotion of students' physical activity, fitness, and motor competence. The purpose of our study was to investigate the efficacy of a 5-month-long intervention program that aimed to increase students' motor competence and health-related fitness during school days. We conducted a quasi-experimental study with 325 Finnish Grade 5 (Mage = 11.26, SD = 0.33) students from five schools. Two schools were allocated to the intervention group and three schools to the control group. The intervention consisted of three components: (a) weekly 20 min session during regular PE lessons, (b) weekly 20 min session during recess, and (c) daily 5-minute-long classroom activity breaks. All activities were designed to systematically develop different elements of motor competence and fitness. The following assessments were conducted at baseline and 5-months: cardiorespiratory fitness levels were measured by 20-meter shuttle run test, muscular fitness by curl-up and push-up tests, and motor competence by 5-leaps and throwing-catching combination tests. We analyzed the data using a multi-group latent change score modeling. Results showed that students in the intervention group developed significantly better in 20-meter shuttle run test (ß = 0.269, p = 0.000, 95% CI [0.141, 0.397]; +5.0 laps), push-up (ß = 0.442, p = 0.000, 95% CI [0.267, 0.617]; +6.5 repetitions), curl-up (ß = 0.353, p = 0.001, 95% CI [0.154, 0.552]; +7.8 repetitions), and throwing-catching combination tests (ß = 0.195, p = 0.019, 95% CI [0.033, 0.356]; +1.1 repetitions) than students in the control group. The intervention program appeared to be feasible and effective in increasing students' cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular fitness, and object control skills. This indicates that guided school-based physical activity programs can be influential in promoting physical fitness and motor competence among early adolescent students.

Impact of Motor Competence Profiles on Adolescents' Physical Activity and Cardiorespiratory Fitness across Four Years.

INTRODUCTION: Physical activity levels have decreased over past decades with most adolescents neither meeting the current physical activity recommendations nor demonstrating adequate cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF). Motor competence (MC) is foundational for a physically active lifestyle; however, children demonstrate significant differences in their levels of MC in a broad foundation of movement skills. This study investigated developmental patterns of physical activity and CRF in children across 4 yr based on their longitudinal MC profiles. METHODS: The data included annual measurements of MC, accelerometry-measured moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and CRF over 4 yr from the age 11 to 15 ( n = 1147, girls 582, boys 565). Latent profile analysis was used to identify longitudinal MC profiles and latent growth curve modeling to examine intercepts and slopes (s) of MVPA and CRF in these MC profiles. RESULTS: Three different longitudinal MC profiles were identified: low, moderate, and high. The MC profiles showed significant differences in intercepts of CRF and MVPA. The high MC profile showed the highest intercepts for both, but also a statistically significant decline in MVPA over time (s = -3.36, P < 0.001). Cardiorespiratory fitness increased similarly in all three profiles over time: low (s = 1.20, P < 0.01), moderate (s = 1.28, P < 0.001), high (s = 2.21, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: These results highlight the long-term associations between different MC profiles and development of MVPA and CRF. Adolescents with lower MC demonstrated lower levels of MVPA and CRF, indicating decreased participation in physical activities that can optimally enhance CRF. However, significant differences in MVPA levels between MC profiles faded over time in adolescence, whereas significant differences in CRF remained.

Secular trends in 20 m shuttle run test performance of 14- to 15-year-old adolescents from 1995 to 2020.

PURPOSE: To investigate whether Finnish adolescents' cardiorespiratory fitness measured using the 20 m shuttle run test (20mSRT) changed between 1995 and 2020 and to examine between-group variation in the five datasets during the past 25 years. METHODS: Data on five cohorts were collected in 1995 (n = 498), 1998 (n = 796), 2003 (n = 2383), 2010 (n = 1383), and 2020 (n = 719). The 20mSRT was administered, following the exact same protocol, to all cohorts. A general linear contrast model was used to examine cohort differences in the 20mSRT scores. Variation across cohorts was tested using chi-square-based between-group tests. RESULTS: Girls' 20mSRT scores decreased from 1995 to 2010 and remained stable from 2010 to 2020. Boys' 20mSRT scores decreased continuously from 1995 to 2020. In addition, the variation in girls' 20mSRT scores was larger in the 2020 than 2003 cohort, indicating the growth of SRT differences between individuals in 2020 cohort compared to 2003 cohort. Similarly, boys' scores showed greater variation, especially in the 2010 and 2020 cohorts than in the 1998 cohort. CONCLUSION: The results of this study showed an overall decline in the cardiorespiratory fitness performance measured by 20mSRT of Finnish adolescents. Boys' scores decreased continuously from 1995 to 2020, whereas girls' scores remained stable after 2010. Examination of the variation in scores further revealed that the gap in scores between the adolescents with the highest and lowest scores increased over time.

Developmental associations of accelerometer measured moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and sedentary time with cardiorespiratory fitness in schoolchildren.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the developmental associations of accelerometer-based moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary time (ST) with cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) in schoolchildren. DESIGN: A three-year follow-up study. METHODS: Participants were 446 (girls 57 %) Finnish children (M = 11.26 ±â€¯0.32 years) from 17 randomly selected public schools in Finland. Accelerometer-based MVPA and ST were assessed using waist-worn activity monitors and CRF using the 20 m shuttle run test at four measurement points from 2017 to 2020. The developmental associations were tested using the Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model (RI-CLPM) reflecting MVPA, CRF, and ST overall levels and repeated measures over time. RESULTS: The key findings were 1) MVPA was positively associated with CRF, whereas ST was negatively associated with CRF; 2) associations between repeated measures of MVPA and ST with CRF were found only at the final time point; 3) CRF was lower in girls than boys, CRF and MVPA were lower in children with higher BMI, and vice versa; and 4) CRF was higher in children who were still experiencing or had already passed their peak growth spurt than children whose growth spurts had not yet begun. CONCLUSIONS: The results contribute to the growing evidence of a positive developmental association between MVPA engagement and CRF. Furthermore, the inverse association between ST and CRF calls for the avoidance of excessive sedentary behaviour. More effort should be made to promote physically active lifestyles in children and youth.

School-Age Children's Actual Motor Competence and Perceived Physical Competence: A 3-Yr Follow-up.

PURPOSE: This study examined school-age children's actual motor competence (MC) and perceived physical competence (PC) over 3 yr along with the covariate effects of gender and body mass index (BMI). METHODS: Participants were 1121 (girls 573, boys 548) children (mean age, 11.26 ± 0.32 yr) from 35 randomly selected public schools across Finland. MC was assessed using three movement tests targeting locomotor, stability, and object control skills, and PC was assessed using the sport competence subscale of the Physical Self-Perception Profile via four-phase monitoring. RESULTS: MC and PC remained stable over time. Of the three variables, locomotor skills showed the strongest association with PC. Lower BMI was associated with advanced MC skills and a less steep decrease in locomotor and stability skills over time. CONCLUSIONS: The acquisition of fundamental motor skills in childhood and early adolescence is a prerequisite for enhancing MC and PC. The contribution of locomotor skills to PC indicated that versatile lower limb strength, speed, dynamic balance, and movement skills are important for positive subjective beliefs about PC capability. Increasing the MC skills of the children in most need, particularly those with high BMI scores, merits special attention.

Development of accelerometer-based light to vigorous physical activity in fitness profiles of school-aged children.

This study examined the developmental trajectories of light (LPA) and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in fitness profiles derived from motor competence, perceived motor competence, health-related fitness, and MVPA behavior. Locomotor, stability, and object control skills, muscular and cardiovascular fitness, and physical activity were assessed in 510 (girls 285 and boys 225) Finnish school-aged children (Mage  = 11.26 ± 33 years) over three years. Physical activity was measured using hip-mounted accelerometers. Fitness profiles were identified using latent profile analysis, and the development of physical activity levels across four assessments was analyzed with latent growth curve models. Results showed that (1) three homogeneous profiles were identified: At-risk, Intermediate, and Desirable; (2) the Desirable group was more physically active than the other groups, the Intermediate group was more physical active than the At-risk group; and (3) LPA decreased similarly over time, while MVPA remained stable in all three profiles. Initial more advanced motor competence, perceived motor competence, health-related fitness, and higher MVPA behavior were associated with higher levels of long-term LPA and MVPA. This finding supports the importance of motor competence skills acquisition in the early school years. Attention should also be paid to increasing engagement in light physical activities, especially in inactive or insufficiently active children with low motor competence skills.

Identifying childhood movement profiles and comparing differences in mathematical skills between clusters: A latent profile analysis.

The aims of this study were; 1) to identify different movement profiles in sixth graders, and 2) to investigate if there are differences in their mathematical basic (BasicMath) and problem solving (ProbSol) skills between existing movement profiles. The sample included 461 (223 girls, 238 boys) students with a mean age of 11.27 ± .32 years from southern and middle Finland. A latent profile analysis (LPA) revealed four movement profiles: "poor movers", "average movers", "skilled movers" and "expert movers". These profiles differed substantially in their motor competence (MC) and health-related fitness (HRF). A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) also revealed that "poor movers" and "average movers" obtained lower results in BasicMath comparing with "skilled movers". The results of this study suggest that cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, MC and BasicMath are interrelated.

Motor Competence and Health-related Fitness of School-Age Children: A Two-Year Latent Transition Analysis.

PURPOSE: The aims of this study were twofold: 1) to identify latent physical performance profiles of motor competence (MC) and cardiorespiratory (CF) and muscular fitness (MF) among school-age children and 2) explore transition probabilities in physical performance profiles over a 2-yr period. METHODS: The present sample comprised 1148 (583 girls, 565 boys) elementary school students (baseline Mage = 11.27 ± 0.32), and data were collected annually (equal intervals) over a period of 2 yr which resulted in a total of three measurements. The measures used were the throwing-catching combination test, 5-leaps and two-legged jumps from side-to-side test (MC), 20-meter shuttle run test (CF), and curl-up and push-up tests (MF). Latent transition analysis was used to identify and track physical performance profiles derived from the measurements of MC, CF, and MF scores. RESULTS: The key findings were: 1) three physical performance profiles were identified: (a) low (28% of the sample; lowest level in each category), (b) moderate (43% of the sample; higher MC, CF, and MF than low), (c) high (29% of the sample; highest MF); 2) the number of physical performance profiles and probability to belong to a given profile were stable across time; 3) the highest transition probability was found in the high group, where some students had transitioned to the moderate group at T2; and 4) girls were most likely to belong to the low group. CONCLUSIONS: Results demonstrated that children's physical performance profiles are stable from late childhood to early adolescence. This study suggests that the early elementary school years are essential for the development of children's MC and health-related fitness.

Development of Children's Actual and Perceived Motor Competence, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Physical Activity, and BMI.

PURPOSE: To examine synergistic associations between developmental trajectories of motor competence, perceived motor competence, cardiorespiratory fitness, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and body mass index (BMI) from late childhood to adolescence. METHODS: In this 3-yr follow-up study, motor competence, perceived motor competence, cardiorespiratory fitness, MVPA, and BMI were assessed in 1167 Finnish school-age children (girls = 583, boys = 565; Mage = 11.27 ± 0.33). Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was measured using hip-mounted accelerometers. Developmental trajectories were analyzed using latent growth curve modeling. RESULTS: The development of motor competence, cardiorespiratory fitness, and BMI was positive over time, whereas the development of perceived motor competence and physical activity was negative. The development of BMI was inversely associated with the development of cardiorespiratory fitness and physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: In the transition from late childhood to adolescence, motor competence, cardiorespiratory fitness, and BMI increased, and perceived motor competence and physical activity decreased. However, individual variance in the developmental trajectories was significant. Moreover, children with a greater increase in BMI showed a greater decrease in cardiorespiratory fitness and physical activity from late childhood to adolescence.

Differences in the Physical Activity, Sedentary Time, and BMI of Finnish Grade 5 Students.

BACKGROUND: This study examined the distribution of objectively measured physical activity (PA) and sedentary time of fifth-grade students during school, leisure time, and physical education (PE) classes. Demographic, anthropometric, and PA data were collected from 17 representative Finnish schools. METHODS: To estimate the PA and sedentary time, participants (N = 592) wore wGT3X-BT ActiGraphs for 7 consecutive days. Comparisons were made between genders and different BMI groups. RESULTS: From the study sample, 43.7% met the moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) guidelines. Participants spent 62.2% of the day sedentary and 8.2% in moderate and vigorous activities. Boys performed more MVPA than girls, and girls were more sedentary during school days. Boys had more MVPA than girls in leisure time, but there were no differences in sedentary time. However, an examination of PA assessed during PE classes revealed no differences between boys and girls. Normal-weight boys engaged in more MVPA than overweight and obese boys. No differences were found for girls. CONCLUSIONS: The PE levels differ between different BMI groups in leisure time and during school but not during PE lessons. PA for overweight children should be targeted and compulsory PE time should be increased to achieve the PA guidelines.

Associations among Basic Psychological Needs, Motivation and Enjoyment within Finnish Physical Education Students.

The purpose of this study was to analyse the associations between basic psychological needs, motivational regulations and enjoyment within Finnish physical education (PE) students. The participants of the study were 260 Grade 5 students (Mage=11.86, SD=0.28) and 242 Grade 8 students (Mage=14.93, SD=0.37) who completed a questionnaire prior to their regular PE classes. This cross-sectional study incorporated a multigroup structural equation modelling (SEM, path model) separately for Grade 5 and 8 students, using gender as a grouping value. Results indicated that among Grade 5 students autonomy was directly associated with enjoyment. In addition, there was an indirect path from autonomy to enjoyment via intrinsic regulation in the boys group, and an indirect path from relatedness to enjoyment via intrinsic regulation in the girls group. Among Grade 8 students, need for competence was directly associated with enjoyment for the boys. Results also revealed negative associations from autonomy to enjoyment via amotivation for the girls group, and via external regulation for the boys group. For both Grades 5 and 8 SEM revealed additional, gender specific associations. The results of this study highlight the importance of students' need satisfaction and autonomous motivation as factors that could facilitate enjoyable experiences in PE classes.

Motor competence, perceived physical competence, physical fitness, and physical activity within Finnish children.

The purpose of this study was to investigate reciprocal relationships among students' motor competence (MC) (leaping, throwing, catching, jumping skills), perceived physical competence, health-related fitness (HRF) (20 m shuttle run, push-up, abdominal muscles endurance tests) and objectively measured moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Participants included 422 Grade 5 Finnish children (246 girls). Two separate structural equation models investigated paths (a) from MC through both perceived physical competence and HRF to MVPA, and (b) from MVPA through both perceived physical competence and HRF to MC. Model 1 demonstrated an indirect path from MC through HRF to MVPA and a direct path from MC to perceived physical competence for both boys and girls. Additionally, model 1 revealed a direct path from perceived physical competence to MVPA for the girls and from MC to MVPA for the boys. MC, perceived physical competence, and HRF explained 13% of variance in MVPA for the girls and 25% for the boys. Model 2 indicated indirect paths from MVPA through perceived physical competence to MC and from MVPA through HRF to MC for both boys and girls. Additionally, a direct path from MVPA to MC was found in the boys' group. MVPA, perceived physical competence, and HRF explained 48% of variance in MC for the girls and 53% for the boys. Results of this study provide preliminary support for the reciprocal nature of relationships among MC development, perceived physical competence, HRF and MVPA.