The burden of sudden cardiac arrest in the setting of acute coronary syndrome.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) during acute coronary syndrome is somewhat unclear, since often subjects dying before the first healthcare contact are not included in the estimates. We aimed to investigate the complete incidence of SCA during ACS. METHODS: The study population consists of two cohorts. The first cohort includes 472 ACS patients from Northern Ostrobothnia, Finland from year 2016 and the second cohort 162 autopsy-verified SCD subjects (extrapolated) from the same region and year, whose death was attributable to coronary artery disease (CAD) and ACS. An extrapolation of SCA incidence during ACS was done by utilizing autopsy data and data from prior autopsy study on this sample. RESULTS: The overall incidence of SCA in the setting of ACS was 17.5%. The incidence of SCA was 20.6% in all ACS subjects without prior CAD diagnosis, and 25.4% in STEMI subjects without prior CAD diagnosis. In subjects with previously diagnosed CAD, the incidence of SCA was 10.9% in all ACS subjects and 16.1% in STEMI subjects. There was a statistically significant difference in the incidence of SCA between subjects with and without prior CAD diagnoses (p=0.0052). CONCLUSION: The inclusion of ACS-SCA subjects dying before the first emergency medical service (EMS) contact results in a higher and likely more accurate estimation of SCA during ACS. The incidence of SCA was higher among subjects without prior CAD diagnosis. The high mortality rate highlights the importance of early ACS detection to reduce the burden of CAD-related premature deaths.

Novel Genetic Variants Associated with Primary Myocardial Fibrosis in Sudden Cardiac Death Victims.

Myocardial fibrosis is a common finding in victims of sudden cardiac death (SCD). Whole exome sequencing was performed in 127 victims of SCD with primary myocardial fibrosis as the only pathological finding. These cases are derived from the Fingesture study which has collected data from autopsy-verified SCD victims in Northern Finland. A computational approach was used to identify protein interactions in cardiomyocytes. Associations of the identified variants with cardiac disease endpoints were investigated in the Finnish national genetic study (FinnGen) dataset. We identified 21 missense and one nonsense variant. Four variants were estimated to affect protein function, significantly associated with SCD/primary myocardial fibrosis (Fingesture) and associated with cardiac diseases in Finnish population (FinnGen). These variants locate in cartilage acidic protein 1 (CRATC1), calpain 1 (CAPN1), unc-45 myosin chaperone A (UNC45A) and unc-45 myosin chaperone B (UNC45B). The variants identified contribute to function of extracellular matrix and cardiomyocytes.

Correction: Smoking cessation and obesity-related morbidities and mortality in a 20-year follow-up study.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279443.].

Lack of Prognostic Value of T-Wave Alternans for Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator Benefit in Primary Prevention.

BACKGROUND: New methods to identify patients who benefit from a primary prophylactic implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) are needed. T-wave alternans (TWA) has been shown to associate with arrhythmogenesis of the heart and sudden cardiac death. We hypothesized that TWA might be associated with benefit from ICD implantation in primary prevention. METHODS AND RESULTS: In the EU-CERT-ICD (European Comparative Effectiveness Research to Assess the Use of Primary Prophylactic Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators) study, we prospectively enrolled 2327 candidates for primary prophylactic ICD. A 24-hour Holter monitor reading was taken from all recruited patients at enrollment. TWA was assessed from Holter monitoring using the modified moving average method. Study outcomes were all-cause death, appropriate shock, and survival benefit. TWA was assessed both as a contiguous variable and as a dichotomized variable with cutoff points <47 µV and <60 µV. The final cohort included 1734 valid T-wave alternans samples, 1211 patients with ICD, and 523 control patients with conservative treatment, with a mean follow-up time of 2.3 years. TWA ≥60 µV was a predicter for a higher all-cause death in patients with an ICD on the basis of a univariate Cox regression model (hazard ratio, 1.484 [95% CI, 1.024-2.151]; P=0.0374; concordance statistic, 0.51). In multivariable models, TWA was not prognostic of death or appropriate shocks in patients with an ICD. In addition, TWA was not prognostic of death in control patients. In a propensity score-adjusted Cox regression model, TWA was not a predictor of ICD benefit. CONCLUSIONS: T-wave alternans is poorly prognostic in patients with a primary prophylactic ICD. Although it may be prognostic of life-threatening arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death in several patient populations, it does not seem to be useful in assessing benefit from ICD therapy in primary prevention among patients with an ejection fraction of ≤35%.

Non-dipping blood pressure pattern is associated with cardiovascular events in a 21-year follow-up study.

Non-dipping blood pressure (BP) pattern is a predictor for cardiovascular (CV) events and mortality. We evaluated dipping status change and its association with incidence of non-fatal CV events in middle-aged subjects. The OPERA study was carried out during the years 1991-1993, with a follow-up study 21.7 years later. In this study, we included 452 participants with 24-h ambulatory BP measurements (ABPM) available in both surveys. The study population was divided into four groups according to the dipping pattern change: dipping-dipping (n = 152/33.6%), dipping-non-dipping (n = 198/43.8%), non-dipping-dipping (n = 20/4.4%), and non-dipping-non-dipping (n = 82/18.1%). Sixty-five participants experienced a CV event (14.4%) during the 21.7 (SD 0.8) years of follow-up. The incidence of events was highest (28%) in the non-dipping-non-dipping group, and lowest (6.6%) in the dipping-dipping group (p < 0.001). In Cox regression analyses the covariates were age, sex, total cholesterol, hypertension and use of antihypertensive medication, systolic office BP and ambulatory mean or nighttime systolic BP, as well as the change in the variables during the follow-up period. After adjustments, the association of the non-dipping-non-dipping pattern with CV events compared with the dipping-dipping pattern remained significant (HR 4.01; 95% CI 1.89-8.67, p < 0.001). In summary, non-dipping-non-dipping pattern was associated with non-fatal CV events in the long term, and the effect was independent of the conventional risk factors including office and ambulatory BP levels.

Prognostic significance of beat-to-beat variability of spatial heterogeneity of repolarization analyzed from a 5-minute resting electrocardiogram in coronary artery disease.

BACKGROUND: Data on the prognostic significance of temporal variability of spatial heterogeneity of electrocardiographic repolarization in coronary artery disease (CAD) are limited. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prognostic value of temporal variability of T-wave morphology analyzed from a 5-minute resting electrocardiogram in CAD. METHODS: The standard deviation (SD) of T-wave morphology dispersion (TMD-SD) and the SD of total cosine R-to-T were analyzed on a beat-to-beat basis from a 5-minute period of the standard resting 12-lead electrocardiogram obtained before the clinical stress test in 1702 patients with angiographically verified CAD and well-preserved left ventricular function. RESULTS: During an average of 8.7 ± 2.2 years of follow-up, 60 patients experienced sudden cardiac death/arrest (SCD/SCA) (3.5%), 69 patients nonsudden cardiac death (NSCD) (4.1%), and 161 patients noncardiac death (9.5%). TMD-SD was significantly higher in patients who experienced SCD/SCA than in other patients (1.72 ± 2.00 vs 1.12 ± 1.75; P = .01) and higher in patients who succumbed to NSCD than in other patients (1.57 ± 1.74 vs 1.12 ± 1.76; P = .04), but it did not differ significantly between patients who experienced noncardiac death and those without such an event (1.16 ± 1.42 vs 1.14 ± 1.79; P = .86). In the Cox multivariable hazards model, TMD-SD retained its significant association with the risk of SCD/SCA (hazard ratio 1.119; 95% confidence interval 1.015-1.233; P = .024) but not with the risk of NSCD (hazard ratio 1.089; 95% confidence interval 0.983-1.206; P = .103). CONCLUSION: TMD-SD is independently associated with the long-term risk of SCD/SCA in patients with CAD.

Day-of-the-week variation of sudden unexpected cardiac death.

Background: There has been some controversy about the day-of-the-week (septadian) variation of unexpected sudden cardiac death (SCD). Methods: We evaluated the incidence of unexpected SCD on different days of the week in a consecutive series of 5869 SCD victims from Northern Finland [the FINGESTURE study (Finnish Genetic Study of Arrhythmic Events)]. As it is mandatory in Finland, a medico-legal autopsy was performed on all unexpected sudden death victims. The autopsies were performed between the years 1998-2017. Results: The mean incidence of unexpected SCD was higher at weekends (during the days from Friday to Sunday, peaking on Saturday) than during the days from Monday to Thursday (8.54 ± 0.72 vs. 7.22 ± 0.19 SCDs per day of the week per 100,000 inhabitants per year, p < 0.001). Regardless of sex or ischemic versus non-ischemic etiology of SCD, the distribution of the occurrence of SCD among the days of the week was similar compared with the whole SCD cohort. Conclusion: The incidence of unexpected SCD was highest at weekends (during the days from Friday to Sunday, peaking on Saturday).

Liver X Receptor Agonist 4ß-Hydroxycholesterol as a Prognostic Factor in Coronary Artery Disease.

BACKGROUND: Regardless of progress in treatment of coronary artery disease (CAD), there is still a significant residual risk of death in patients with CAD, highlighting the need for additional risk stratification markers. Our previous study provided evidence for a novel blood pressure-regulating mechanism involving 4ß-hydroxycholesterol (4ßHC), an agonist for liver X receptors, as a hypotensive factor. The aim was to determine the role of 4ßHC as a prognostic factor in CAD. METHODS AND RESULTS: The ARTEMIS (Innovation to Reduce Cardiovascular Complications of Diabetes at the Intersection) cohort consists of 1946 patients with CAD. Men and women were analyzed separately in quartiles according to plasma 4ßHC. Basic characteristics, medications, ECG, and echocardiography parameters as well as mortality rate were analyzed. At baseline, subjects with a beneficial cardiovascular profile, as assessed with traditional markers such as body mass index, exercise capacity, prevalence of diabetes, and use of antihypertensives, had the highest plasma 4ßHC concentrations. However, in men, high plasma 4ßHC was associated with all-cause death, cardiac death, and especially sudden cardiac death (SCD) in a median follow-up of 8.8 years. Univariate and comprehensively adjusted hazard ratios for SCD in the highest quartile were 3.76 (95% CI, 1.6-8.7; P=0.002) and 4.18 (95% CI, 1.5-11.4; P=0.005), respectively. In contrast, the association of cardiac death and SCD in women showed the lowest risk in the highest 4ßHC quartile. CONCLUSIONS: High plasma 4ßHC concentration was associated with death and especially SCD in men, while an inverse association was detected in women. Our results suggest 4ßHC as a novel sex-specific risk marker of cardiac death and especially SCD in chronic CAD. REGISTRATION INFORMATION: clinicaltrials.gov. Identifier NCT01426685.

QRS complex and T wave planarity for the efficacy prediction of automatic implantable defibrillators.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that in recipients of primary prophylactic implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs), the non-planarity of ECG vector loops predicts (a) deaths despite ICD protection and (b) appropriate ICD shocks. METHODS: Digital pre-implant ECGs were collected in 1948 ICD recipients: 21.4% females, median age 65 years, 61.5% ischaemic heart disease (IHD). QRS and T wave three-dimensional loops were constructed using singular value decomposition that allowed to measure the vector loop planarity. The non-planarity, that is, the twist of the three-dimensional loops out of a single plane, was related to all-cause mortality (n=294; 15.3% females; 68.7% IHD) and appropriate ICD shocks (n=162; 10.5% females; 87.7% IHD) during 5-year follow-up after device implantation. Using multivariable Cox regression, the predictive power of QRS and T wave non-planarity was compared with that of age, heart rate, left ventricular ejection fraction, QRS duration, spatial QRS-T angle, QTc interval and T-peak to T-end interval. RESULTS: QRS non-planarity was significantly (p<0.001) associated with follow-up deaths despite ICD protection with HR of 1.339 (95% CI 1.165 to 1.540) but was only univariably associated with appropriate ICD shocks. Non-planarity of the T wave loop was the only ECG-derived index significantly (p<0.001) associated with appropriate ICD shocks with multivariable Cox regression HR of 1.364 (1.180 to 1.576) but was not associated with follow-up mortality. CONCLUSIONS: The analysed data suggest that QRS and T wave non-planarity might offer distinction between patients who are at greater risk of death despite ICD protection and those who are likely to use the defibrillator protection.

Lifestyle and Cardiac Structure and Function in Healthy Midlife Population.

The association between lifestyle and cardiac structure and function measures, such as global longitudinal strain and diastolic function in a healthy midlife general population, is not well known. A subpopulation of the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 took part in follow-up, including echocardiography (n = 1,155) at the age of 46. All antihypertensive medication users (n = 164), patients with diabetes (n = 70), subjects with any cardiac diseases (n = 24), and subjects with echocardiography abnormalities (n = 21) were excluded. Moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was recorded with a wrist-worn accelerometer over 14 days and categorized into high, moderate, and low MVPA groups. Similarly, alcohol consumption was categorized as low, moderate, and high-dose users of alcohol and smoking as nonsmokers, former, and current smokers. The total number of healthy subjects included in the study was 715 (44% males). Left ventricular mass index and left atrial end-systolic volume index were significantly higher in the high MVPA group compared with the low MVPA group (adjusted main effect p = 0.002 and p <0.001, respectively). Cardiac function did not differ among the physical activity groups. High alcohol consumption was associated with impaired global longitudinal strain and diastolic function (adjusted main effect p = 0.002 and p = 0.004, respectively) but not with any cardiac structure variables. Smoking was not associated with cardiac structure or function. In healthy middle-aged adults, MVPA was independently associated with structural changes in the heart but not with cardiac function. High alcohol consumption was associated with impaired modern cardiac function measures but not with cardiac structure.

Primary myocardial fibrosis - a distinct entity characterized by heterogeneous histology.

Primary myocardial fibrosis (PMF), defined as myocardial fibrosis in the absence of identifiable causes, may represent a common alternative phenotype in various cardiomyopathies and contribute to sudden cardiac death (SCD). No previous definitions of histopathological characteristics exist for PMF. We aimed to evaluate whether common features of fibrosis could be identified. PMF cases (n = 28) were selected from the FinGesture cohort consisting of 5,869 SCD victims that underwent a medicolegal autopsy. Twelve trauma controls and 10 ischemic heart disease cases were selected as reference groups. Further 3 PMF cases and 5 ischemic heart disease cases from autopsies performed in the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, were selected for a validation substudy. Relative area of fibrosis, amount of diffuse and perivascular fibrosis, and location of fibrosis were assessed from left ventricle myocardial samples stained with Masson trichrome. Further evaluations were performed with alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), vimentin, and CD68 stainings. Mean relative area of fibrosis was 5.8 ± 10.7%, 1.0 ± 0.7%, and 7.0 ± 7.4% in PMF, trauma controls, and ischemic cases, respectively. Fibrosis in the PMF group was mostly located in other sites than the endocardium. Most cases with fibrosis had vimentin-positive but α-SMA-negative stromal cells within fibrotic areas. Histopathologically, PMF represents a heterogeneous entity with variable fibrotic lesions affecting the whole myocardium and a suggested significant role of fibroblasts. These findings may bring validation to PMF being a common manifestation of cardiomyopathies. Evidently, PMF stands out as a particular entity demanding special attention as a cause of SCD.

Leisure time and occupational physical activity, overall and cardiovascular mortality: a 24-year follow-up in the OPERA study.

BACKGROUND: In earlier studies, the health benefits of physical activity have only been related to leisure time physical activity (LTPA). High occupational physical activity (OPA) might even be harmful. The current physical activity recommendations do not separate the OPA and LTPA. We investigated the effect of LTPA and OPA on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality during long-term follow-up. We also examined how heavy work affects the benefits of leisure time exercise. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study was part of the OPERA study and the baseline examinations were conducted between the years 1991 and 1993. The Follow-up of events continued until the end of the year 2020. Study subjects (n = 1044) were divided into four groups according to their LTPA ("no exercise", "irregular", "regular" and "heavy regular") and into three groups according to their OPA ("no activity", "mild" and "heavy"). The amount of exercise was self-reported and the exercise status was defined at the beginning of the study. Study subjects were followed up for their overall mortality (26 years), fatal and non-fatal CVD events (24 and 20 years) and heart failure (20 years). The survival analysis was performed using Kaplan-Meier curves and Cox-proportional hazard models. RESULTS: "Heavy" OPA group subjects belonging to the "irregular" (less than 1-2 times 30 min exercise per week) LTPA group experienced the lowest overall mortality compared to other LTPA groups. Also, overall mortality was increased in the "mild" (p = 0.002) and CVD mortality in the" heavy" (p = 0.005) OPA group compared to "no activity". The incidence of heart failure was increased in the "no exercise" LTPA compared to the "heavy regular" (p = 0.015) group. CONCLUSIONS: Study subjects who were in physically demanding occupations (heavy OPA) seemed to benefit from less LTPA than WHO currently recommends. Thus we suggest targeting different LTPA recommendations to different OPA groups.

Overall mortality was increased in the "mild" and CVD mortality in the" heavy" OPA group compared to "no activity" OPA in 26-year follow-up.Study subjects in physically demanding occupations benefitted more from less LTPA than the WHO currently recommends.High LTPA protected middle-aged study subjects from heart failure compared with sedentary study subjects at 20-year follow-up.

Lower hemoglobin levels associate with higher baroreflex sensitivity and heart rate variability.

The aim of this study was to cross-sectionally examine whether hemoglobin (Hb) levels within the normal variation associate with heart rate variability (HRV) measures and baroreflex sensitivity (BRS). The study population included 733 Finnish subjects of the OPERA cohort (aged 41-59 yr, 53% males, 51.7% treated for hypertension) of whom HRV was measured from a standardized 45-min period and whose Hb levels were within the Finnish reference intervals. The low Hb tertile (mean Hb, 135 g/L) had an overall healthier metabolic profile compared with the high Hb tertile (mean Hb, 152 g/L). BRS was higher in the low Hb tertile compared with the high Hb tertile (P < 0.05). R-R interval (RRi) and standard deviation (SD) of the RRi (SDNN)index were the longest in the low Hb tertile regardless of posture. Of the spectral components of HRV, HF power was the highest in the low Hb tertile regardless of posture (P < 0.05). In a stepwise logistic regression model, BRS associated negatively with Hb levels after adjusting for covariates (B = -0.160 [-0.285; -0.035]). Similar associations were observed for SDNNindex when lying down (B = -0.105 [-0.207; -0.003]) and walking (B = -0.154 [-0.224; -0.083]). For HF power negative associations with Hb levels were observed when lying down (B = -0.110 [-0.180; -0.040]), sitting (B = -0.150 [-0.221; -0.079]), and in total analysis (B = -0.124 [-0.196; -0.053]). Overall, lower Hb levels associated independently with healthier cardiac autonomic function.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Heart rate variability (HRV) and baroreflex sensitivity (BRS), which can be measured noninvasively, can predict cardiac and metabolic diseases. Our findings show that within normal variation subjects with lower hemoglobin (Hb) levels have an overall healthier HRV profile and increased cardiac parasympathetic activity in middle age, independent of age, sex, smoking status, and key metabolic covariates. These findings support our previous findings that Hb levels can be used in assessing long-term risks for cardiometabolic diseases.

Endothelin-1 is associated with mortality that can be attenuated with high intensity statin therapy in patients with stable coronary artery disease.

BACKGROUND: All coronary artery disease (CAD) patients do not benefit equally of secondary prevention. Individualized intensity of drug therapy is currently implemented in guidelines for CAD and diabetes. Novel biomarkers are needed to identify patient subgroups potentially benefitting from individual therapy. This study aimed to investigate endothelin-1 (ET-1) as a biomarker for increased risk of adverse events and to evaluate if medication could alleviate the risks in patients with high ET-1. METHODS: A prospective observational cohort study ARTEMIS included 1946 patients with angiographically documented CAD. Blood samples and baseline data were collected at enrollment and the patients were followed for 11 years. Multivariable Cox regression was used to assess the association between circulating ET-1 level and all-cause mortality, cardiovascular (CV) death, non-CV death and sudden cardiac death (SCD). RESULTS: Here we show an association of circulating ET-1 level with higher risk for all-cause mortality (HR: 2.06; 95% CI 1.5-2.83), CV death, non-CV death and SCD in patients with CAD. Importantly, high intensity statin therapy reduces the risk for all-cause mortality (adjusted HR: 0.05; 95% CI 0.01-0.38) and CV death (adjusted HR: 0.06; 95% CI 0.01-0.44) in patients with high ET-1, but not in patients with low ET-1. High intensity statin therapy does not associate with reduction of risk for non-CV death or SCD. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggests a prognostic value for high circulating ET-1 in patients with stable CAD. High intensity statin therapy associates with reduction of risk for all-cause mortality and CV death in CAD patients with high ET-1.

Patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) ­ in which the blood vessels supplying the heart become blocked - need careful management to prevent adverse outcomes related to their disease, such as a heart attack or sudden cardiac death. Identification of markers in the blood to predict adverse outcomes would help to improve the care of patients with CAD. Here, we find that higher circulating levels of endothelin-1 (ET-1), a protein secreted normally to maintain blood pressure, associate with greater risk of death in CAD patients. Cholesterol-lowering statin therapy used at high intensity (high dosage) can counteract the increased risk of death observed in CAD patients with high ET-1. Therefore, circulating ET-1 level could be used as a marker to predict the risk of death in CAD patients, and an indication for high intensity statin therapy. Our findings could help clinicians to improve the management of patients with CAD.

Causes and characteristics of unexpected sudden cardiac death in octogenarians/nonagenarians.

INTRODUCTION: The risk for sudden cardiac death (SCD) increases with ageing. METHODS: We evaluated causes and characteristics of unexpected SCD in SCD victims aged ≥ 80 years in a consecutive series of 5,869 SCD victims in Northern Finland. All the victims underwent medico-legal autopsy as medico-legal autopsy is mandatory in cases of unexpected sudden death in Finland. All the non-cardiac deaths such as pulmonary embolism and cerebral hemorrhage were excluded from the study, as were unnatural deaths such as intoxications. RESULTS: Among SCD victims ≥ 80 years, 91.0% of SCDs were due to ischemic heart disease (IHD) determined in autopsy and 9.0% due to non-ischemic heart disease (NIHD), whereas among those < 80 years, only 72.6% of SCDs were due to IHD and 27.4% due to NIHD (P < .001). Severe fibrosis in myocardium was more common whereas heart weight and liver weight, body mass index and abdominal fat thickness, were lower among SCD victims aged ≥ 80 years than among victims aged < 80 years. In those with IHD as etiology of SCD, at least 75% stenosis in one or more major coronary vessels was more common in SCD victims aged ≥ 80 years than among victims aged < 80 years (P = .001). SCD victims 80 years or older were less likely to die during physical activity than those under 80 years old (5.6% vs. 15.9%, P < .001). Dying in sauna was more common among those ≥ 80 years than among those < 80 years (5.5% vs. 2.6%, P < .001). CONCLUSION: In victims of unexpected SCD aged ≥ 80 years, the autopsy-based etiology of SCD was more commonly IHD than in those aged < 80 years. In SCD victims aged ≥ 80 years, severe fibrosis in myocardium, representing arrhythmic substrate, was more common than in the younger ones.

Use of Psychotropic Medication in Victims of Sudden Cardiac Death with Nonischemic Heart Disease.

BACKGROUND: Nonischemic heart disease (NIHD) is the underlying pathology in about 20% of sudden cardiac deaths (SCDs). Psychotropic medication has been reported as a risk factor for SCD among patients with coronary artery disease, but similar information concerning NIHD is scarce. OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the use of psychotropic medication in victims of SCD due to NIHD and compared it to the general medication use in Finland. METHOD: Study population was derived from the Finnish Genetic Study of Arrhythmic Events (Fingesture) (n = 5,869, mean age: 65 ± 12, 79% males; 1,404 victims of SCD due to NIHD, mean age: 57 ± 13, 77% males). All deaths occurred in Northern Finland during 1998-2017. All victims underwent a medicolegal autopsy. Data on use of medication were defined using postmortem toxicology results and patient records. Subjects with neither toxicological analysis nor information of medication use available were excluded. Information on general medication use was derived from Finnish Statistics on Medicines 2018 and presented as defined daily dose/1,000 inhabitants/day. RESULTS: Psychotropic medication was used by 579 (41%) subjects with NIHD, whereas in the general population, only 12% were estimated to use psychotropics. The results were similar in subgroups of psychotropic medication: 27% versus 2.3% for benzodiazepines, 19% versus 7.5% for antidepressants, and 18% versus 2.2% for antipsychotics. CONCLUSIONS: Use of psychotropic medication is common in victims of SCD due to NIHD compared to the general population.