Porphyrin overdrive rewires cancer cell metabolism.

All cancer cells reprogram metabolism to support aberrant growth. Here, we report that cancer cells employ and depend on imbalanced and dynamic heme metabolic pathways, to accumulate heme intermediates, that is, porphyrins. We coined this essential metabolic rewiring "porphyrin overdrive" and determined that it is cancer-essential and cancer-specific. Among the major drivers are genes encoding mid-step enzymes governing the production of heme intermediates. CRISPR/Cas9 editing to engineer leukemia cell lines with impaired heme biosynthetic steps confirmed our whole-genome data analyses that porphyrin overdrive is linked to oncogenic states and cellular differentiation. Although porphyrin overdrive is absent in differentiated cells or somatic stem cells, it is present in patient-derived tumor progenitor cells, demonstrated by single-cell RNAseq, and in early embryogenesis. In conclusion, we identified a dependence of cancer cells on non-homeostatic heme metabolism, and we targeted this cancer metabolic vulnerability with a novel "bait-and-kill" strategy to eradicate malignant cells.

An Extended C-Terminus, the Possible Culprit for Differential Regulation of 5-Aminolevulinate Synthase Isoforms.

5-Aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS; E.C. 2.3.1.37) is a pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the key regulatory step of porphyrin biosynthesis in metazoa, fungi, and α-proteobacteria. ALAS is evolutionarily related to transaminases and is therefore classified as a fold type I PLP-dependent enzyme. As an enzyme controlling the key committed and rate-determining step of a crucial biochemical pathway ALAS is ideally positioned to be subject to allosteric feedback inhibition. Extensive kinetic and mutational studies demonstrated that the overall enzyme reaction is limited by subtle conformational changes of a hairpin loop gating the active site. These findings, coupled with structural information, facilitated early prediction of allosteric regulation of activity via an extended C-terminal tail unique to eukaryotic forms of the enzyme. This prediction was subsequently supported by the discoveries that mutations in the extended C-terminus of the erythroid ALAS isoform (ALAS2) cause a metabolic disorder known as X-linked protoporphyria not by diminishing activity, but by enhancing it. Furthermore, kinetic, structural, and molecular modeling studies demonstrated that the extended C-terminal tail controls the catalytic rate by modulating conformational flexibility of the active site loop. However, the precise identity of any such molecule remains to be defined. Here we discuss the most plausible allosteric regulators of ALAS activity based on divergences in AlphaFold-predicted ALAS structures and suggest how the mystery of the mechanism whereby the extended C-terminus of mammalian ALASs allosterically controls the rate of porphyrin biosynthesis might be unraveled.

5-Aminolevulinate synthase catalysis: The catcher in heme biosynthesis.

5-Aminolevulinate (ALA) synthase (ALAS), a homodimeric pyridoxal-5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme, catalyzes the first step of heme biosynthesis in metazoa, fungi and α-proteobacteria. In this review, we focus on the advances made in unraveling the mechanism of the ALAS-catalyzed reaction during the past decade. The interplay between the PLP cofactor and the protein moiety determines and modulates the multi-intermediate reaction cycle of ALAS, which involves the decarboxylative condensation of two substrates, glycine and succinyl-CoA. Substrate binding and catalysis are rapid, and product (ALA) release dominates the overall ALAS kinetic mechanism. Interconversion between a catalytically incompetent, open conformation and a catalytically competent, closed conformation is linked to ALAS catalysis. Reversion to the open conformation, coincident with ALA dissociation, defines the slowest step of the reaction cycle. These findings were further substantiated by introducing seven mutations in the16-amino acid loop that gates the active site, yielding an ALAS variant with a greatly increased rate of catalytic turnover and heightened specificity constants for both substrates. Recently, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation analysis of various dimeric ALAS forms revealed that the seven active site loop mutations caused the proteins to adopt different conformations. In particular, the emergence of a ß-strand in the mutated loop, which interacted with two preexisting ß-strands to form an anti-parallel three-stranded ß-sheet, conferred the murine heptavariant with a more stable open conformation and prompted faster product release than wild-type mALAS2. Moreover, the dynamics of the mALAS2 active site loop anti-correlated with that of the 35 amino acid C-terminal sequence. This led us to propose that this C-terminal extension, which is absent in prokaryotic ALASs, finely tunes mammalian ALAS activity. Based on the above results, we extend our previous proposal to include that discovery of a ligand inducing the mammalian C-terminal extension to fold offers a good prospect for the development of a new drug for X-linked protoporphyria and/or other porphyrias associated with enhanced ALAS activity and/or porphyrin accumulation.

Ferrochelatase π-helix: Implications from examining the role of the conserved π-helix glutamates in porphyrin metalation and product release.

Protoporphyrin ferrochelatase catalyzes the insertion of Fe2+ into protoporphyrin IX to form heme. To determine whether a conserved, active site π-helix contributes to the translocation of the metal ion substrate to the ferrochelatase-bound porphyrin substrate, the invariant π-helix glutamates were replaced with amino acids with non-negatively charged side chains, and the kinetic mechanisms of the generated variants were examined. Analysis of yeast wild-type ferrochelatase-, E314Q- and E318Q-catalyzed reactions, under multi- and single-turnover conditions, demonstrated that the mutations of the π-helix glutamates hindered both protoporphyrin metalation and release of the metalated porphyrin, by slowing each step by approximately 30-50%. Protoporphyrin metalation occurred with an apparent pKa of 7.3 ±â€¯0.1, which was assigned to binding of Fe2+ by deprotonated Glu-314 and Glu-314-assisted Fe2+ insertion into the porphyrin ring. We propose that unwinding of the π-helix concomitant with the adoption of a protein open conformation positions the deprotonated Glu-314 to bind Fe2+ from the surface of the enzyme. Transition to the closed conformation, with π-helix winding, brings Glu-314-bound Fe2+ to the active site for incorporation into protoporphyrin.

The Structure of the Complex between Yeast Frataxin and Ferrochelatase: CHARACTERIZATION AND PRE-STEADY STATE REACTION OF FERROUS IRON DELIVERY AND HEME SYNTHESIS.

Frataxin is a mitochondrial iron-binding protein involved in iron storage, detoxification, and delivery for iron sulfur-cluster assembly and heme biosynthesis. The ability of frataxin from different organisms to populate multiple oligomeric states in the presence of metal ions, e.g. Fe(2+) and Co(2+), led to the suggestion that different oligomers contribute to the functions of frataxin. Here we report on the complex between yeast frataxin and ferrochelatase, the terminal enzyme of heme biosynthesis. Protein-protein docking and cross-linking in combination with mass spectroscopic analysis and single-particle reconstruction from negatively stained electron microscopic images were used to verify the Yfh1-ferrochelatase interactions. The model of the complex indicates that at the 2:1 Fe(2+)-to-protein ratio, when Yfh1 populates a trimeric state, there are two interaction interfaces between frataxin and the ferrochelatase dimer. Each interaction site involves one ferrochelatase monomer and one frataxin trimer, with conserved polar and charged amino acids of the two proteins positioned at hydrogen-bonding distances from each other. One of the subunits of the Yfh1 trimer interacts extensively with one subunit of the ferrochelatase dimer, contributing to the stability of the complex, whereas another trimer subunit is positioned for Fe(2+) delivery. Single-turnover stopped-flow kinetics experiments demonstrate that increased rates of heme production result from monomers, dimers, and trimers, indicating that these forms are most efficient in delivering Fe(2+) to ferrochelatase and sustaining porphyrin metalation. Furthermore, they support the proposal that frataxin-mediated delivery of this potentially toxic substrate overcomes formation of reactive oxygen species.

Human Erythroid 5-Aminolevulinate Synthase Mutations Associated with X-Linked Protoporphyria Disrupt the Conformational Equilibrium and Enhance Product Release.

Regulation of 5-aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS) is at the origin of balanced heme production in mammals. Mutations in the C-terminal region of human erythroid-specific ALAS (hALAS2) are associated with X-linked protoporphyria (XLPP), a disease characterized by extreme photosensitivity, with elevated blood concentrations of free protoporphyrin IX and zinc protoporphyrin. To investigate the molecular basis for this disease, recombinant hALAS2 and variants of the enzyme harboring the gain-of-function XLPP mutations were constructed, purified, and analyzed kinetically, spectroscopically, and thermodynamically. Enhanced activities of the XLPP variants resulted from increases in the rate at which the product 5-aminolevulinate (ALA) was released from the enzyme. Circular dichroism spectroscopy revealed that the XLPP mutations altered the microenvironment of the pyridoxal 5'-phosphate cofactor, which underwent further and specific alterations upon succinyl-CoA binding. Transient kinetic analyses of the variant-catalyzed reactions and protein fluorescence quenching upon binding of ALA to the XLPP variants demonstrated that the protein conformational transition step associated with product release was predominantly affected. Of relevance is the fact that XLPP could also be modeled in cell culture. We propose that (1) the XLPP mutations destabilize the succinyl-CoA-induced hALAS2 closed conformation and thus accelerate ALA release, (2) the extended C-terminus of wild-type mammalian ALAS2 provides a regulatory role that allows for allosteric modulation of activity, thereby controlling the rate of erythroid heme biosynthesis, and (3) this control is disrupted in XLPP, resulting in porphyrin accumulation.

Catalytically active alkaline molten globular enzyme: Effect of pH and temperature on the structural integrity of 5-aminolevulinate synthase.

5-Aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS), a pyridoxal-5'phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme, catalyzes the first step of heme biosynthesis in mammals. Circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescence spectroscopies were used to examine the effects of pH (1.0-3.0 and 7.5-10.5) and temperature (20 and 37°C) on the structural integrity of ALAS. The secondary structure, as deduced from far-UV CD, is mostly resilient to pH and temperature changes. Partial unfolding was observed at pH2.0, but further decreasing pH resulted in acid-induced refolding of the secondary structure to nearly native levels. The tertiary structure rigidity, monitored by near-UV CD, is lost under acidic and specific alkaline conditions (pH10.5 and pH9.5/37°C), where ALAS populates a molten globule state. As the enzyme becomes less structured with increased alkalinity, the chiral environment of the internal aldimine is also modified, with a shift from a 420nm to 330nm dichroic band. Under acidic conditions, the PLP cofactor dissociates from ALAS. Reaction with 8-anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonic acid corroborates increased exposure of hydrophobic clusters in the alkaline and acidic molten globules, although the reaction is more pronounced with the latter. Furthermore, quenching the intrinsic fluorescence of ALAS with acrylamide at pH1.0 and 9.5 yielded subtly different dynamic quenching constants. The alkaline molten globule state of ALAS is catalytically active (pH9.5/37°C), although the kcat value is significantly decreased. Finally, the binding of 5-aminolevulinate restricts conformational fluctuations in the alkaline molten globule. Overall, our findings prove how the structural plasticity of ALAS contributes to reaching a functional enzyme.

Brain-computer interface classifier for wheelchair commands using neural network with fuzzy particle swarm optimization.

This paper presents the classification of a three-class mental task-based brain-computer interface (BCI) that uses the Hilbert-Huang transform for the features extractor and fuzzy particle swarm optimization with cross-mutated-based artificial neural network (FPSOCM-ANN) for the classifier. The experiments were conducted on five able-bodied subjects and five patients with tetraplegia using electroencephalography signals from six channels, and different time-windows of data were examined to find the highest accuracy. For practical purposes, the best two channel combinations were chosen and presented. The three relevant mental tasks used for the BCI were letter composing, arithmetic, and Rubik's cube rolling forward, and these are associated with three wheelchair commands: left, right, and forward, respectively. An additional eyes closed task was collected for testing and used for on-off commands. The results show a dominant alpha wave during eyes closure with average classification accuracy above 90%. The accuracies for patients with tetraplegia were lower compared to the able-bodied subjects; however, this was improved by increasing the duration of the time-windows. The FPSOCM-ANN provides improved accuracies compared to genetic algorithm-based artificial neural network (GA-ANN) for three mental tasks-based BCI classifications with the best classification accuracy achieved for a 7-s time-window: 84.4% (FPSOCM-ANN) compared to 77.4% (GA-ANN). More comparisons on feature extractors and classifiers were included. For two-channel classification, the best two channels were O1 and C4, followed by second best at P3 and O2, and third best at C3 and O2. Mental arithmetic was the most correctly classified task, followed by mental Rubik's cube rolling forward and mental letter composing.

Unstable reaction intermediates and hysteresis during the catalytic cycle of 5-aminolevulinate synthase: implications from using pseudo and alternate substrates and a promiscuous enzyme variant.

5-Aminolevulinate (ALA), an essential metabolite in all heme-synthesizing organisms, results from the pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzymatic condensation of glycine with succinyl-CoA in non-plant eukaryotes and α-proteobacteria. The predicted chemical mechanism of this ALA synthase (ALAS)-catalyzed reaction includes a short-lived glycine quinonoid intermediate and an unstable 2-amino-3-ketoadipate intermediate. Using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry to analyze the products from the reaction of murine erythroid ALAS (mALAS2) with O-methylglycine and succinyl-CoA, we directly identified the chemical nature of the inherently unstable 2-amino-3-ketoadipate intermediate, which predicates the glycine quinonoid species as its precursor. With stopped-flow absorption spectroscopy, we detected and confirmed the formation of the quinonoid intermediate upon reacting glycine with ALAS. Significantly, in the absence of the succinyl-CoA substrate, the external aldimine predominates over the glycine quinonoid intermediate. When instead of glycine, L-serine was reacted with ALAS, a lag phase was observed in the progress curve for the L-serine external aldimine formation, indicating a hysteretic behavior in ALAS. Hysteresis was not detected in the T148A-catalyzed L-serine external aldimine formation. These results with T148A, a mALAS2 variant, which, in contrast to wild-type mALAS2, is active with L-serine, suggest that active site Thr-148 modulates ALAS strict amino acid substrate specificity. The rate of ALA release is also controlled by a hysteretic kinetic mechanism (observed as a lag in the ALA external aldimine formation progress curve), consistent with conformational changes governing the dissociation of ALA from ALAS.

Expression of murine 5-aminolevulinate synthase variants causes protoporphyrin IX accumulation and light-induced mammalian cell death.

5-Aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS; EC 2.3.1.37) catalyzes the first committed step of heme biosynthesis in animals. The erythroid-specific ALAS isozyme (ALAS2) is negatively regulated by heme at the level of mitochondrial import and, in its mature form, certain mutations of the murine ALAS2 active site loop result in increased production of protoporphyrin IX (PPIX), the precursor for heme. Importantly, generation of PPIX is a crucial component in the widely used photodynamic therapies (PDT) of cancer and other dysplasias. ALAS2 variants that cause high levels of PPIX accumulation provide a new means of targeted, and potentially enhanced, photosensitization. In order to assess the prospective utility of ALAS2 variants in PPIX production for PDT, K562 human erythroleukemia cells and HeLa human cervical carcinoma cells were transfected with expression plasmids for ALAS2 variants with greater enzymatic activity than the wild-type enzyme. The levels of accumulated PPIX in ALAS2-expressing cells were analyzed using flow cytometry with fluorescence detection. Further, cells expressing ALAS2 variants were subjected to white light treatments (21-22 kLux) for 10 minutes after which cell viability was determined. Transfection of HeLa cells with expression plasmids for murine ALAS2 variants, specifically for those with mutated mitochondrial presequences and a mutation in the active site loop, caused significant cellular accumulation of PPIX, particularly in the membrane. Light treatments revealed that ALAS2 expression results in an increase in cell death in comparison to aminolevulinic acid (ALA) treatment producing a similar amount of PPIX. The delivery of stable and highly active ALAS2 variants has the potential to expand and improve upon current PDT regimes.

Classification of wheelchair commands using brain computer interface: comparison between able-bodied persons and patients with tetraplegia.

This paper presents a three-class mental task classification for an electroencephalography based brain computer interface. Experiments were conducted with patients with tetraplegia and able bodied controls. In addition, comparisons with different time-windows of data were examined to find the time window with the highest classification accuracy. The three mental tasks used were letter composing, arithmetic and imagery of a Rubik's cube rolling forward; these tasks were associated with three wheelchair commands: left, right and forward, respectively. An eyes closed task was also recorded for the algorithms testing and used as an additional on/off command. The features extraction method was based on the spectrum from a Hilbert-Huang transform and the classification algorithm was based on an artificial neural network with a fuzzy particle swarm optimization with cross-mutated operation. The results show a strong eyes closed detection for both groups with average accuracy at above 90%. The overall result for the combined groups shows an improved average accuracy of 70.6% at 1s, 74.8% at 2s, 77.8% at 3s, 79.6% at 4s and 81.4% at 5s. The accuracy for individual groups were lower for patients with tetraplegia compared to the able-bodied group, however, does improve with increased duration of the time-window.

Aminolaevulinic acid synthase of Rhodobacter capsulatus: high-resolution kinetic investigation of the structural basis for substrate binding and catalysis.

The first enzyme of haem biosynthesis, ALAS (5-aminolaevulinic acid synthase), catalyses the pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent condensation of glycine and succinyl-CoA to 5-aminolaevulinic acid, CO(2) and CoA. The crystal structure of Rhodobacter capsulatus ALAS provides the first snapshots of the structural basis for substrate binding and catalysis. To elucidate the functional role of single amino acid residues in the active site for substrate discrimination, substrate positioning, catalysis and structural protein rearrangements, multiple ALAS variants were generated. The quinonoid intermediates I and II were visualized in single turnover experiments, indicating the presence of an α-amino-ß-oxoadipate intermediate. Further evidence was obtained by the pH-dependent formation of quinonoid II from the product 5-aminolaevulinic acid. The function of Arg(21), Thr(83), Asn(85) and Ile(86), all involved in the co-ordination of the succinyl-CoA substrate carboxy group, were analysed kinetically. Arg(21), Thr(83)and Ile(86), all of which are located in the second subunit to the intersubunit active site, were found to be essential. Their location in the second subunit provides the basis for the required structural dynamics during the complex condensation of both substrates. Utilization of L-alanine by the ALAS variant T83S indicated the importance of this residue for the selectiveness of binding with the glycine substrate compared with related amino acids. Asn(85) was found to be solely important for succinyl-CoA substrate recognition and selectiveness of binding. The results of the present study provide a novel dynamic view on the structural basis of ALAS substrate-binding and catalysis.

Mental task classifications using prefrontal cortex electroencephalograph signals.

For an electroencephalograph (EEG)-based brain computer interface (BCI) application, the use of gel on the hair area of the scalp is needed for low impedance electrical contact. This causes the set up procedure to be time consuming and inconvenient for a practical BCI system. Moreover, studies of other cortical areas are useful for BCI development. As a more convenient alternative, this paper presents the EEG based-BCI using the prefrontal cortex non-hair area to classify mental tasks at three electrodes position: Fp1, Fpz and Fp2. The relevant mental tasks used are mental arithmetic, ringtone, finger tapping and words composition with additional tasks which are baseline and eyes closed. The feature extraction is based on the Hilbert Huang Transform (HHT) energy method and the classification algorithm is based on an artificial neural network (ANN) with genetic algorithm (GA) optimization. The results show that the dominant alpha wave during eyes closed can still clearly be detected in the prefrontal cortex. The classification accuracy for five subjects, mental tasks vs. baseline task resulted in average accuracy is 73% and the average accuracy for pairs of mental task combinations is 72%.

Toward fewer EEG channels and better feature extractor of non-motor imagery mental tasks classification for a wheelchair thought controller.

This paper presents a non-motor imagery tasks classification electroencephalography (EEG) based brain computer interface (BCI) for wheelchair control. It uses only two EEG channels and a better feature extractor to improve the portability and accuracy in the practical system. In addition, two different features extraction methods, power spectral density (PSD) and Hilbert Huang Transform (HHT) energy are compared to find a better method with improved classification accuracy using a Genetic Algorithm (GA) based neural network classifier. The results from five subjects show that using the original eight channels with three tasks, accuracy between 76% and 85% is achieved. With only two channels in combination with the best chosen task using a PSD feature extractor, the accuracy is reduced to between 65% and 79%. However, the HHT based method provides an improved accuracy between 70% and 84% for the classification of three discriminative tasks using two EEG channels.

FERROCHELATASE: THE CONVERGENCE OF THE PORPHYRIN BIOSYNTHESIS AND IRON TRANSPORT PATHWAYS.

Ferrochelatase (also known as PPIX ferrochelatase; Enzyme Commission number 4.9.9.1.1) catalyzes the insertion of ferrous iron into PPIX to form heme. This reaction unites the biochemically synchronized pathways of porphyrin synthesis and iron transport in nearly all living organisms. The ferrochelatases are an evolutionarily diverse family of enzymes with no more than six active site residues known to be perfectly conserved. The availability of over thirty different crystal structures, including many with bound metal ions or porphyrins, has added tremendously to our understanding of ferrochelatase structure and function. It is generally believed that ferrous iron is directly channeled to ferrochelatase in vivo, but the identity of the suspected chaperone remains uncertain despite much recent progress in this area. Identification of a conserved metal ion binding site at the base of the active site cleft may be an important clue as to how ferrochelatases acquire iron, and catalyze desolvation during transport to the catalytic site to complete heme synthesis.

Functional asymmetry for the active sites of linked 5-aminolevulinate synthase and 8-amino-7-oxononanoate synthase.

5-Aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS) and 8-amino-7-oxononanoate synthase (AONS) are homodimeric members of the α-oxoamine synthase family of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzymes. Previously, linking two ALAS subunits into a single polypeptide chain dimer yielded an enzyme (ALAS/ALAS) with a significantly greater turnover number than that of wild-type ALAS. To examine the contribution of each active site to the enzymatic activity of ALAS/ALAS, the catalytic lysine, which also covalently binds the PLP cofactor, was substituted with alanine in one of the active sites. Albeit the chemical rate for the pre-steady-state burst of ALA formation was identical in both active sites of ALAS/ALAS, the k(cat) values of the variants differed significantly (4.4±0.2 vs. 21.6±0.7 min(-1)) depending on which of the two active sites harbored the mutation. We propose that the functional asymmetry for the active sites of ALAS/ALAS stems from linking the enzyme subunits and the introduced intermolecular strain alters the protein conformational flexibility and rates of product release. Moreover, active site functional asymmetry extends to chimeric ALAS/AONS proteins, which while having a different oligomeric state, exhibit different rates of product release from the two ALAS and two AONS active sites due to the created intermolecular strain.

Molecular enzymology of 5-aminolevulinate synthase, the gatekeeper of heme biosynthesis.

Pyridoxal-5'-phosphate (PLP) is an obligatory cofactor for the homodimeric mitochondrial enzyme 5-aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS), which controls metabolic flux into the porphyrin biosynthetic pathway in animals, fungi, and the α-subclass of proteobacteria. Recent work has provided an explanation for how this enzyme can utilize PLP to catalyze the mechanistically unusual cleavage of not one but two substrate amino acid α-carbon bonds, without violating the theory of stereoelectronic control of PLP reaction-type specificity. Ironically, the complex chemistry is kinetically insignificant, and it is the movement of an active site loop that defines k(cat) and ultimately, the rate of porphyrin biosynthesis. The kinetic behavior of the enzyme is consistent with an equilibrium ordered induced-fit mechanism wherein glycine must bind first and a portion of the intrinsic binding energy with succinyl-Coenzyme A is then utilized to perturb the enzyme conformational equilibrium towards a closed state wherein catalysis occurs. Return to the open conformation, coincident with ALA dissociation, is the slowest step of the reaction cycle. A diverse variety of loop mutations have been associated with hyperactivity, suggesting the enzyme has evolved to be purposefully slow, perhaps as a means to allow for rapid up-regulation of activity in response to an as yet undiscovered allosteric type effector. Recently it was discovered that human erythroid ALAS mutations can be associated with two very different diseases. Mutations that down-regulate activity can lead to X-linked sideroblastic anemia, which is characterized by abnormally high iron levels in mitochondria, while mutations that up-regulate activity are associated with X-linked dominant protoporphyria, which in contrast is phenotypically identified by abnormally high porphyrin levels. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Pyridoxal Phosphate Enzymology.

Identification and characterization of an inhibitory metal ion-binding site in ferrochelatase.

Ferrochelatase catalyzes the insertion of ferrous iron into protoporphyrin IX to form heme. The severe metal ion substrate inhibition observed during in vitro studies of the purified enzyme is almost completely eliminated by mutation of an active site histidine residue (His-287, murine ferrochelatase numbering) to leucine and reduced over 2 orders of magnitude by mutation of a nearby conserved phenylalanine residue (Phe-283) to leucine. Elimination of substrate inhibition had no effect on the apparent V(max) for Ni(2+), but the apparent K(m) was increased 100-fold, indicating that the integrity of the inhibitory binding site is important for the enzyme to turn over substrates rapidly at low micromolar metal ion concentrations. The inhibitory site was observed to have a pK(a) value of 8.0, and this value was reduced to 7.5 by the F283L mutation and to 7.4 in a naturally occurring positional variant observed in most bacterial ferrochelatases, murine ferrochelatase H287C. A H287N variant was also found to be substrate-inhibited, but unlike the H287C variant, pH dependence of substrate inhibition was largely eliminated. The data indicate that the inhibitory metal ion-binding site is composed of multiple residues but primarily defined by His-287 and Phe-283 and is crucial for optimal activity at low metal ion concentrations. It is proposed that this binding site may be important for ferrous iron acquisition and desolvation in vivo.

Targeting the active site gate to yield hyperactive variants of 5-aminolevulinate synthase.

The rate of porphyrin biosynthesis in mammals is controlled by the activity of the pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent enzyme 5-aminolevulinate synthase (EC 2.3.1.37). Based on the postulate that turnover in this enzyme is controlled by conformational dynamics associated with a highly conserved active site loop, we constructed a variant library by targeting imperfectly conserved noncatalytic loop residues and examined the effects on product and porphyrin production. Functional loop variants of the enzyme were isolated via genetic complementation in Escherichia coli strain HU227. Colony porphyrin fluorescence varied widely when bacterial cells harboring the loop variants were grown on inductive media; this facilitated identification of clones encoding unusually active enzyme variants. Nine loop variants leading to high in vivo porphyrin production were purified and characterized kinetically. Steady state catalytic efficiencies for the two substrates were increased by up to 100-fold. Presteady state single turnover reaction data indicated that the second step of quinonoid intermediate decay, previously assigned as reaction rate-limiting, was specifically accelerated such that in three of the variants this step was no longer kinetically significant. Overall, our data support the postulate that the active site loop controls the rate of product and porphyrin production in vivo and suggest the possibility of an as yet undiscovered means of allosteric regulation.