MALARIA-WHY DO MOSTLY CHILDREN GET SICK?

Did you know that micro-organisms can live in blood? Plasmodium parasites can infect red blood cells and cause a serious disease called malaria. This disease is mostly seen in young children living in Africa. Sick children have a fever, aches, can feel very tired, and in bad cases, they can even die from malaria. There are medicines that cure malaria, but it is hard to get these to everyone who needs them. Fortunately, as children grow older, they do not feel as sick when they are infected by the malaria-causing parasite. Better yet, adults hardly ever get malaria. The reason for this difference between children and adults has to do with how well the body's defense system can fight off the parasite. Keep reading if you want to learn more about malaria, the Plasmodium parasite and how the immune system fights against it.

Exploring the role of point-of-care ultrasound for people with HIV in a resource affluent setting: A prospective observational study.

BACKGROUND: In low resource settings point of care ultrasound (POCUS) has proven value for the detection of opportunistic diseases in HIV, especially tuberculosis. Few studies have explored POCUS in people with HIV and potential opportunistic infections in resource affluent settings. METHODS: We performed a prospective observational study in the Netherlands. Outpatients newly diagnosed with HIV and a CD4 T-cell count below 350 cells/mm3 and inpatients with HIV on the infectious diseases ward were included. POCUS of chest and abdomen were performed to detect opportunistic diseases and patients were followed for 1 year to register the presence or absence of opportunistic diseases as detected during routine care. Primary outcome was the number of HIV-related and unrelated conditions detected by POCUS and interobserver variation (ClinicalTrials.gov registration NCT04246983). RESULTS: We included 34 patients (79% males, median CD4 T-cell count 115/mm3). Observers had 97.5% agreement (Cohen's kappa for interobserver reliability 0.75). POCUS examination indicated at least one new opportunistic disease in 11 patients. In all these patients additional investigations confirmed opportunistic disease, predominantly Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia, bacterial pneumonia, Mycobacterium avium complex infection and lymphoma. In four patients an opportunistic disease was diagnosed in foci inaccessible for POCUS and a normal POCUS correctly excluded opportunistic diseases of the investigated structures in all patients, yielding a sensitivity of 73% and a specificity of 100%. CONCLUSIONS: POCUS can be a reliable, valuable addition to physical examination of people with HIV and advanced immune suppression. The data support further exploration of POCUS in people with HIV in resource affluent settings.

Point-of-care ultrasound to assess volume status and pulmonary oedema in malaria patients.

PURPOSE: Fluid management is challenging in malaria patients given the risks associated with intravascular fluid depletion and iatrogenic fluid overload leading to pulmonary oedema. Given the limitations of the physical examination in guiding fluid therapy, we evaluated point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) of the inferior vena cava (IVC) and lungs as a novel tool to assess volume status and detect early oedema in malaria patients. METHODS: To assess the correlation between IVC and lung ultrasound (LUS) indices and clinical signs of hypovolaemia and pulmonary oedema, respectively, concurrent clinical and sonographic examinations were performed in an observational study of 48 malaria patients and 62 healthy participants across age groups in Gabon. RESULTS: IVC collapsibility index (CI) ≥ 50% on enrolment reflecting intravascular fluid depletion was associated with an increased number of clinical signs of hypovolaemia in severe and uncomplicated malaria. With exception of dry mucous membranes, IVC-CI correlated with most clinical signs of hypovolaemia, most notably sunken eyes (r = 0.35, p = 0.0001) and prolonged capillary refill (r = 0.35, p = 0.001). IVC-to-aorta ratio ≤ 0.8 was not associated with any clinical signs of hypovolaemia on enrolment. Among malaria patients, a B-pattern on enrolment reflecting interstitial fluid was associated with dyspnoea (p = 0.0003), crepitations and SpO2 ≤ 94% (both p < 0.0001), but not tachypnoea (p = 0.069). Severe malaria patients had increased IVC-CI (p < 0.0001) and more B-patterns (p = 0.004) on enrolment relative to uncomplicated malaria and controls. CONCLUSION: In malaria patients, POCUS of the IVC and lungs may improve the assessment of volume status and detect early oedema, which could help to manage fluids in these patients.

The diagnostic accuracy for ARDS of global versus regional lung ultrasound scores - a post hoc analysis of an observational study in invasively ventilated ICU patients.

BACKGROUND: Semi-quantification of lung aeration by ultrasound helps to assess presence and extent of pulmonary pathologies, including the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). It is uncertain which lung regions add most to the diagnostic accuracy for ARDS of the frequently used global lung ultrasound (LUS) score. We aimed to compare the diagnostic accuracy of the global versus those of regional LUS scores in invasively ventilated intensive care unit patients. METHODS: This was a post-hoc analysis of a single-center observational study in the mixed medical-surgical intensive care unit of a university-affiliated hospital in the Netherlands. Consecutive patients, aged ≥ 18 years, and are expected to receive invasive ventilation for > 24 h underwent a LUS examination within the first 2 days of ventilation. The Berlin Definition was used to diagnose ARDS, and to classify ARDS severity. From the 12-region LUS examinations, the global score (minimum 0 to maximum 36) and 3 regional scores (the 'anterior,' 'lateral,' and 'posterior' score, minimum 0 to maximum 12) were computed. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) curve was calculated and the best cutoff for ARDS discrimination was determined for all scores. RESULTS: The study enrolled 152 patients; 35 patients had ARDS. The global score was higher in patients with ARDS compared to patients without ARDS (median 19 [15-23] vs. 5 [3-9]; P < 0.001). The posterior score was the main contributor to the global score, and was the only score that increased significantly with ARDS severity. However, the posterior score performed worse than the global score in diagnosing ARDS, and it had a positive predictive value of only 50 (41-59)% when using the optimal cutoff. The combined anterolateral score performed as good as the global score (AUROC of 0.91 [0.85-0.97] vs. 0.91 [0.86-0.95]). CONCLUSIONS: While the posterior score increases with ARDS severity, its diagnostic accuracy for ARDS is hampered due to an unfavorable signal-to-noise ratio. An 8-region 'anterolateral' score performs as well as the global score and may prove useful to exclude ARDS in invasively ventilated ICU patients.

Correction to: External confirmation and exploration of the Kigali modification for diagnosing moderate or severe ARDS.

In Table 1 of this article, the numerical data were correct but the graphic part was imprecise.

Hemostatic Changes Associated With Increased Mortality Rates in Hospitalized Patients With HIV-Associated Tuberculosis: A Prospective Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Mortality rates remain high for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated tuberculosis, and our knowledge of contributing mechanisms is limited. We aimed to determine whether hemostatic changes in HIV-tuberculosis were associated with mortality or decreased survival time and the contribution of mycobacteremia to these effects. METHODS: We conducted a prospective study in Khayelitsha, South Africa, in hospitalized HIV-infected patients with CD4 cell counts <350/µL and microbiologically proved tuberculosis. HIV-infected outpatients without tuberculosis served as controls. Plasma biomarkers reflecting activation of procoagulation and anticoagulation, fibrinolysis, endothelial cell activation, matricellular protein release, and tissue damage were measured at admission. Cox proportional hazard models were used to assess variables associated with 12-week mortality rates. RESULTS: Of 59 patients with HIV-tuberculosis, 16 (27%) died after a median of 12 days (interquartile range, 0-24 days); 29 (64%) of the 45 not receiving anticoagulants fulfilled criteria for disseminated intravascular coagulation. Decreased survival time was associated with higher concentrations of markers of fibrinolysis, endothelial activation, matricellular protein release, and tissue damage and with decreased concentrations for markers of anticoagulation. In patients who died, coagulation factors involved in the common pathway were depleted (factor II, V, X), which corresponded to increased plasma clotting times. Mycobacteremia modestly influenced hemostatic changes without affecting mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with severe HIV-tuberculosis display a hypercoagulable state and activation of the endothelium, which is associated with mortality.

Mortality in Severe Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Tuberculosis Associates With Innate Immune Activation and Dysfunction of Monocytes.

Background: Case fatality rates among hospitalized patients diagnosed with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated tuberculosis remain high, and tuberculosis mycobacteremia is common. Our aim was to define the nature of innate immune responses associated with 12-week mortality in this population. Methods: This prospective cohort study was conducted at Khayelitsha Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa. Hospitalized HIV-infected tuberculosis patients with CD4 counts <350 cells/µL were included; tuberculosis blood cultures were performed in all. Ambulatory HIV-infected patients without active tuberculosis were recruited as controls. Whole blood was stimulated with Escherichia coli derived lipopolysaccharide, heat-killed Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Biomarkers of inflammation and sepsis, intracellular (flow cytometry) and secreted cytokines (Luminex), were assessed for associations with 12-week mortality using Cox proportional hazard models. Second, we investigated associations of these immune markers with tuberculosis mycobacteremia. Results: Sixty patients were included (median CD4 count 53 cells/µL (interquartile range [IQR], 22-132); 16 (27%) died after a median of 12 (IQR, 0-24) days. Thirty-one (52%) grew M. tuberculosis on blood culture. Mortality was associated with higher concentrations of procalcitonin, activation of the innate immune system (% CD16+CD14+ monocytes, interleukin-6, tumour necrosis factor-ɑ and colony-stimulating factor 3), and antiinflammatory markers (increased interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and lower monocyte and neutrophil responses to bacterial stimuli). Tuberculosis mycobacteremia was not associated with mortality, nor with biomarkers of sepsis. Conclusions: Twelve-week mortality was associated with greater pro- and antiinflammatory alterations of the innate immune system, similar to those reported in severe bacterial sepsis.

Interobserver agreement of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention criteria for classifying infections in critically ill patients.

OBJECTIVES: Correct classification of the source of infection is important in observational and interventional studies of sepsis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention criteria are most commonly used for this purpose, but the robustness of these definitions in critically ill patients is not known. We hypothesized that in a mixed ICU population, the performance of these criteria would be generally reduced and would vary among diagnostic subgroups. DESIGN: Prospective cohort. SETTING: Data were collected as part of a cohort of 1,214 critically ill patients admitted to two hospitals in The Netherlands between January 2011 and June 2011. PATIENTS: Eight observers assessed a random sample of 168 of 554 patients who had experienced at least one infectious episode in the ICU. Each patient was assessed by two randomly selected observers who independently scored the source of infection (by affected organ system or site), the plausibility of infection (rated as none, possible, probable, or definite), and the most likely causative pathogen. Assessments were based on a post hoc review of all available clinical, radiological, and microbiological evidence. The observed diagnostic agreement for source of infection was classified as partial (i.e., matching on organ system or site) or complete (i.e., matching on specific diagnostic terms), for plausibility as partial (2-point scale) or complete (4-point scale), and for causative pathogens as an approximate or exact pathogen match. Interobserver agreement was expressed as a concordant percentage and as a kappa statistic. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A total of 206 infectious episodes were observed. Agreement regarding the source of infection was 89% (183/206) and 69% (142/206) for a partial and complete diagnostic match, respectively. This resulted in a kappa of 0.85 (95% CI, 0.79-0.90). Agreement varied from 63% to 91% within major diagnostic categories and from 35% to 97% within specific diagnostic subgroups, with the lowest concordance observed in cases of ventilator-associated pneumonia. In the 142 episodes for which a complete match on source of infection was obtained, the interobserver agreement for plausibility of infection was 83% and 65% on a 2- and 4-point scale, respectively. For causative pathogen, agreement was 78% and 70% for an approximate and exact pathogen match, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Interobserver agreement for classifying sources of infection using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention criteria was excellent overall. However, full concordance on all aspects of the diagnosis between independent observers was rare for some types of infection, in particular for ventilator-associated pneumonia.