Living on the extreme margin: social exclusion of the transgender population (hijra) in Bangladesh.

The transgender people (hijra), who claim to be neither male nor female, are socially excluded in Bangladesh. This paper describes social exclusion of hijra [The term is used in this abstract both in singular and plural sense] focusing on the pathway between exclusion and sexual health. In an ethnographic study, 50 in-depth interviews with hijra, 20 key-informant interviews, and 10 focus-group discussions (FGDs), along with extensive field observations, were conducted. The findings revealed that hijra are located at the extreme margin of exclusion having no sociopolitical space where a hijra can lead life of a human being with dignity. Their deprivations are grounded in non-recognition as a separate gendered human being beyond the male-female dichotomy. Being outside this norm has prevented them from positioning themselves in greater society with human potential and security. They are physically, verbally, and sexually abused. Extreme social exclusion diminishes self-esteem and sense of social responsibility. Before safer sex interventions can be effective in a broader scale, hijra need to be recognized as having a space on society's gender continuum. Hijra, as the citizens of Bangladesh and part of society's diversity, have gender, sexual and citizenship rights, that need to be protected.

Not to stigmatize but to humanize sexual lives of the transgender (hijra) in Bangladesh: condom chat in the AIDS era.

Despite condom interventions since year 2000 with the transgender (hijra) population, condom use remains low. Consequently, hijra suffer from higher rates of active syphilis, putting them under threat of HIV transmission. In an ethnographic study, 50 in-depth interviews with diverse groups of hijra along with 20 key-informants interviews with various stakeholders, and 13 focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with comprehensive field observations. Findings indicate that most hijra understand the importance of condoms, but none use condoms consistently. Complex underlying reasons positioned beyond the individual's cognitive domain include: low self-confidence; economic hardships for mere survival; multiple transient partners; sexual desire, preferences, and eroticisms concerning anal sex; stigma associated with purchasing condoms; poor quality and interrupted supply of condoms and lubricants; limitation of fear-producing messages in favor of condoms; inadequate professional skills and motivational impetus of the outreach staff for condom promotion, and incompetent management with inadequate understanding about the dynamics of condom use. Imposing condoms by disregarding socio-cultural and socio-economic scripts of sexual relationships and eroticism of hijra-sexuality have challenged the effectiveness of current condom interventions. Interventions should not mechanize the process, rather they may humanize and eroticize sexual lives of the hijra. A paradigm shift is required where condoms enhance the dignity and quality of sexual lives of the hijra beyond the framework of disgrace, disease, and death.