Natural Phytochemical and Visible Light at Different Wavelengths Show Synergistic Antibacterial Activity against Staphylococcus aureus.

As the risk of antibiotic-resistant bacteria increases, interest in non-antibiotic treatment is also increasing. Among the methods used in non-antibiotic therapy, natural antibiotics such as essential oils have disadvantages such as low efficiency. In the case of phototherapy, the light used for antibacterial activities has low penetration into the human body because of its short wavelength, making it of low medical utility. To solve this problem, this study aimed to determine conditions for enhancing the antibacterial activity of natural phytochemicals and visible light. Four natural phytochemical extracts that showed high antibacterial properties in previous studies were analyzed. Synergistic effects on antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity were determined when natural phytochemical extracts and visible light were simultaneously used. As a result, it was confirmed that the antibacterial activity increased by four times when Sanguisorba officinalis L. was irradiated with 465 nm for 10 min and 520 nm for 40 min, and Uncaria gambir Roxb. was irradiated with 465 nm for 10 min and 520 nm for 60 min compared to when Sanguisorba officinalis L. and Uncaria gambir Roxb. were used alone. The synergistic effect on antibacterial activity was independent of the absorption peak of the natural phytochemical extracts. In addition, in the case of natural phytochemical extracts with improved antibacterial activity, it was confirmed that the improvement of antibacterial activity was increased in inverse proportion to the light irradiation wavelength and in proportion to the light irradiation time. The antibacterial activity was enhanced regardless of antibiotic resistance. In the case of cytotoxicity, it was confirmed that there was no toxicity to A549 cells when treated with 465 nm, the shortest wavelength among the natural phytochemical extracts. These results show how to replace blue light, which has been underutilized due to its low transmittance and cytotoxicity. They also demonstrate the high medical potential of using natural phytochemical and visible light as a combination therapy.

In Vitro Synergistic Inhibitory Effects of Plant Extract Combinations on Bacterial Growth of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the most common pathogens of healthcare-associated infections. Medicinal plants have long been used in the traditional treatment of diseases or syndromes worldwide. Combined use of plant extracts could improve the effectiveness of pharmacological action by obtaining synergism, acting on multiple targets simultaneously, reducing the doses of individual components, and minimizing side effects. We aimed to investigate the synergistic inhibitory effects of selected medicinal plants (Caesalpinia sappan L. (CS), Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. (GU), Sanguisorba officinalis L. (SO), and Uncaria gambir Roxb. (UG)) on the bacterial growth of MRSA and its clinical isolates. SO and UG extracts generated the best synergistic interaction as adjudged by checkerboard synergy assays. MICs of the individual extracts decreased 4-fold from 250 to 62.5 µg/mL, respectively. The SO + UG combination was further evaluated for its effects on bacterial growth inhibition, minimum bactericidal/inhibitory concentration (MBC/MIC) ratio, and time-kill kinetics. The results indicate that the SO + UG combination synergistically inhibited the bacterial growth of MRSA strains with bactericidal effects. SO + UG combination also exhibited more potent effects against clinical isolates. In multistep resistance selection experiments, both standard and isolates of MRSA showed no resistance to the SO + UG combination even after repeated exposure over fourteen passages. Our data suggest that using plant extract combinations could be a potential strategy to treat MRSA infections.

Comparing the Phylogenetic Distribution of Multilocus Sequence Typing, Staphylococcal Protein A, and Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome Mec Types in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) in Korea from 1994 to 2020.

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) bacteremia is one of the most frequent and severe bacterial infections worldwide. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a serious human pathogen that can cause a wide variety of infections. Comparative genetic analyses have shown that despite the existence of a vast number of genotypes, genotypes are restricted to certain geographical locations. By comparing multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and SCCmec types from 1994 to 2020, the present study intended to discover which genotype genes were related to MRSA infections. MLST, Staphylococcus aureus protein A (spa), and SCCmec typings were performed to determine their relationship during those years. Results revealed that MRSA isolates in the Republic of Korea were distributed among all major staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) types. The majority of SCCmec isolates belonged to SCCmec type II and type IV. The majority of MLST had the sequence type (ST) 72, 239, 8, or 188. By contrast, minorities belonged to ST22 (SCCmec IV), ST772 (SCCmec V), and ST672 (SCCmec V) genotypes. The SCCmec type was determined for various types. The spa type was dispersed, seemingly regardless of its multidrug resistance property. The MLST type was found to be similar to the existing typical type. These results showed some correlations between resistance characteristics and types according to the characteristics of the MLST types distributed, compared to previous papers. Reports on genotype distribution of MLST and SCCmec types in MRSA are rare. These results show a clear distribution of MLST and SCCmec types of MRSA from 1994 to 2020 in the Republic of Korea.

Inhibitory Effects of Selected Medicinal Plants on Bacterial Growth of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a serious threat to global public health due to its capacity of tolerate conventional antibiotics. Medicinal plants are traditionally used to treat infectious diseases caused by bacterial pathogens. In the present study, 16 medicinal plants were screened for antibacterial activities to preselect more effective species. Ethanol extracts of selected medicinal plants (Caesalpinia sappan L., Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch., Sanguisorba officinalis L., and Uncaria gambir Roxb) were partitioned successively with different solvents (n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, 1-butanol, and water). Disc diffusion assay and broth microdilution were performed to evaluate the antibacterial activities of plant extracts and fractions against Staphylococcus aureus strains. Furthermore, the cytotoxicity of the extracts and fractions was determined against the human hepatoma (HepG2) and human lung carcinoma (A549) cell lines using a trypan blue exclusion method. A few extracts and fractions showed significant inhibitory effects on the bacterial growth of all tested strains, including multidrug-resistance (MDR) clinical isolates. The ethyl acetate fraction of C. sappan had the most potent effects with minimum inhibitory/bactericidal concentrations (MIC/MBC) of 31.2/62.5 µg/mL and showed low cytotoxicity with over 90% cell viability in both cells. Our results suggest that medicinal plants have considerable potential as alternatives to conventional antibiotics.

Korean Red Ginseng and Ginsenoside Rg3 Suppress Asian Sand Dust-Induced Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Nasal Epithelial Cells.

Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is characterized by chronic inflammation of the sinonasal mucosa with epithelial dedifferentiation toward the mesenchymal phenotype, known as the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Asian sand dust (ASD) can induce nasal mucosal inflammation and cause the development of EMT. Korean red ginseng (KRG) and ginsenoside Rg3 have been used as traditional herbal medicines to treat various diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate their effect on ASD-induced EMT in nasal epithelial cells. Primary nasal epithelial cells were incubated with ASD with or without KRG or Rg3, and the production of transforming growth factor-ß1 (TGF-ß1) and interleukin (IL)-8 was measured. EMT markers were determined by RT-PCR, Western blot analysis, and confocal microscopy, and transcription factor expression by Western blot analysis. The effect on cell migration was evaluated using the wound scratch assay. Results showed ASD-induced TGF-ß1 production, downregulation of E-cadherin, and upregulation of fibronectin in nasal epithelial cells. KRG and Rg3 suppressed TGF-ß1 production (31.7% to 43.1%), upregulated the expression of E-cadherin (26.4% to 88.3% in mRNA), and downregulated that of fibronectin (14.2% to 46.2% in mRNA and 52.3% to 70.2% in protein). In addition, they suppressed the ASD-induced phosphorylation of ERK, p38, and mTOR, as well as inhibiting the ASD-induced migration of nasal epithelial cells (25.2% to 41.5%). The results of this study demonstrate that KRG and Rg3 inhibit ASD-induced EMT by suppressing the activation of ERK, p38, and mTOR signaling pathways in nasal epithelial cells.

Novel spa and Multi-Locus Sequence Types (MLST) of Staphylococcus Aureus Samples Isolated from Clinical Specimens in Korean.

Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia is one of the most frequent and severe bacterial infections worldwide. The increased incidence of S. aureus infections with a diverse pattern of S. aureus protein A (spa) types across different geographic regions is a global challenge. This study investigated a novel spa type of methicillin-resistant S. aureus in a clinically isolated specimen. A total of 109 clinical S. aureus samples were subjected to 19 sets of antimicrobial susceptibility testing using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. Molecular typing was performed with S. aureus protein A (spa) and multi-locus sequence types (MLST) via polymerase chain reaction and sequencing. The methicillin-resistant S. aureus samples in our study accounted for 55.05% (60/109) of the total. A novel spa type was detected in five (5/60) strains. This gh22 isolate was identified in antimicrobial susceptibility tests of 15 kinds of antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance genes included mecA, TEM, aac(6')-aph(2"), ermA, and tetM. Eleven S. aureus samples were classified as t2460, t338, t324, t693, five unknown spa types (new spa types), and undefined MLST (novel MLST). We report a high prevalence rate of t2460 methicillin-resistant S. aureus samples in our country. Additionally, novel spa gh22, MLST ST4613, and clonal compact CC5-type strains (T1:M1:B1:B1:M1:E1:K1, r26:r17:r34:r34:r17:r13:r16, mlst;1:4:1:4:559:495:10) showing multidrug resistance were identified among S. aureus samples.

Effect of exposure to Asian sand dust-Particulate matter on liver Tenascin-C expression in human cancer cell and mouse hepatic tissue.

Asian Sand Dust-Particulate Matter (ASD-PM) aerosol brings large amounts of wind-eroded soil particles containing high concentrations of metallic components caused by industrialization and vehicles. Proinflammatory and cytotoxic cytokines trigger local inflammatory responses and cause a systematically high incidence of cardiovascular and other diseases. Tenascin C (Tn-C) is known to be expressed in damaged tissue or in a developmental stage of tissue. In this study, we examined the expression of Tn-C and Fibronectin in human cancer-cell lines and in liver tissue of mice treated with ASD-PM to investigate the inflammatory and cell-damage effects of ASD-PM. In our in vivo study, mice were intratracheally instilled with saline suspensions of ASD-PM particles. Instillation of these particles was repeated twice a week for 12 weeks and the liver tissues were stained with hematoxylin, eosin, and Masson's trichrome, and we carried out an IF. Tn-C expression in liver tissues was detected by RT-PCR and western blot analysis. In the results, the expression of Tn-C increased in a dose-dependent manner in both RNA and Immunofluorescence assay (IF). In our in vitro study, A549 and Hep3B cell lines were incubated in culture media with Transforming Growth Factor-Beta1(TGF-ß1) and ASD-PM. Immunofluorescence microscopy images showed a two times stronger expression of fluorescence in the ASD-treated group than in that treated with TGF-ß1. They also showed a stronger expression of Tn-C in proportion to the concentration of ASD-PM. We confirmed that ASD-PM when inhaled formally migrated to other organs and induced Tn-C expression. ASD-PM containing metals causes expression of Tn-C in liver tissue in proportion to the concentration of ASD-PM.

Anti-Oxidant Activity and Dust-Proof Effect of Chitosan with Different Molecular Weights.

High molecular weight chitosan (HMWC) was degraded to prepare chitosan with different molecular weight based on the fenton reaction, which can produce aggressive OH-radicals produced from hydrogen peroxide in the presence of catalytic metal ions. The relative molecular weight, anti-oxidant activity, and fine dust removal effect of chitosan hydrolysates were elucidated to define their molecular weight and their potent biological activity. Our results demonstrate that chitosan hydrolysates derived from the hydrolysis of HMWC may possess significant free-radical scavenging activity as good anti-oxidants against the radical scavenging activity of DPPH and ABTS, respectively. Furthermore, chitosan hydrolysates can effectively eliminate fine dust, which may contain some particulate matter (PM) and unknown species of microorganisms from the air, suggesting that our data provide important information for producing air filters, dust-proof masks and skin cleaner for the purpose of human healthcare and well-being.

Potent biomedical applications of isolated polysaccharides from marine microalgae Tetraselmis species.

Microalgae Tetraselmis species were used to evaluate the biological characteristics of water-soluble polysaccharides (WSPs) as one of the significant bioactive substances (BAS) from these photosynthetic microalgae species. Compositional analysis of these BAS shows that they are mainly composed of WSPs along with negligible amount of proteins and lipids. WSPs were partially purified and characterized for their compositional, structural and biological properties such as antioxidant, tyrosinase inhibitory activity and antifungal activies. These WSPs showed the significant antioxidant, antifungal and tyrosinase inhibitory activities, respectively. The outcomes of this study demonstrated that WSPs can be the potent source of biological moieties for further investigations along with specific potent biological activities.

Dexamethasone inhibits hypoxia-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in colon cancer.

AIM: To elucidate the effects of dexamethasone on hypoxia-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in colon cancer. METHODS: Human colon cancer HCT116 and HT29 cells were exposed to normoxic (21%) and hypoxic (1%) conditions. First, the effect of dexamethasone on cell viability was examined by MTT cell proliferation assay. In order to measure the expression levels of EMT markers (Snail, Slug, Twist, E-cadherin, and integrin αVß6) and hypoxia-related genes [Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)] by dexamethasone, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis were performed. Furthermore, the morphological changes of colon cancer cells and the expression pattern of E-cadherin by dexamethasone were detected through immunocytochemistry. Finally, the effects of dexamethasone on the invasiveness and migration of colon cancer cells were elucidated using matrigel invasion, migration, and wound healing migration assays. RESULTS: Under hypoxia, dexamethasone treatment inhibited HIF-1α protein level and its downstream gene, VEGF mRNA level in the colon cancer cell lines, HCT116 and HT29. In addition, the presence of dexamethasone down-regulated the mRNA levels of hypoxia-induced Snail, Slug, and Twist, all transcriptional factors of EMT, as well as hypoxia-induced integrin αVß6 protein level, a well-known EMT marker for colon cancer cells. Furthermore, reduced E-cadherin in hypoxic condition was found to be recoverable by treating with dexamethasone in both colon cancer cell lines. Similarly, under hypoxic conditions, dexamethasone restored the growth pattern and morphological phenotype reminiscent of colon cancer cells grown under normoxic conditions; dexamethasone blocked the migration and invasion of both colorectal cancer cell lines in hypoxia. CONCLUSION: Our study suggested that dexamethasone has inhibitory effects on cell migration and invasion by suppressing EMT of colon cancer cell lines in hypoxic condition.

Bacillus thuringiensis: a specific gamma-cyclodextrin producer strain.

An anaerobic microbial isolate Bacillus species, designated B. thuringiensis GU-2, was isolated from soil as a specific γ-cyclodextrin (CD) producer strain in alkaline medium under anaerobic conditions. The optimum pH and temperature for bacterial growth and γ-CD production were estimated to be pH 8.5 and 37°C in the presence of 1.0% starch substrate, respectively. A high purity yield >95% of γ-CD from the total CD yield in the reaction mixture was obtained from starch that was supposed to be converted by gamma-cyclodextrin glycotransferase, tentatively named as γ-CGTase. The maximum γ-CGTase activity was estimated at 2.45U/mL under optimized condition. This is the first report demonstrating the generation of a specific γ-cyclodextrin (CD) producer strain by the action of a γ-CGTase under anaerobic conditions.

The effect of Asian sand dust-activated respiratory epithelial cells on activation and migration of eosinophils.

UNLABELLED: CONTEST: Asian sand dust (ASD) contains various chemical and microbiological materials. ASD aggravate the inflammatory response of respiratory epithelial cells and symptoms of asthma. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the inflammatory effects of ASD on the activation of bronchial epithelial cells and the effect on the activation and migration of eosinophils. MATERIALS AND METHODS: BEAS-2B cells were exposed to three forms of ASD: particles less than 10 µm in diameter (PM), dried sand dust (SD) and sand dust collected from the Gobi Desert (GB). Activation of the epithelial cells was determined using interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), regulated on activation normal T expressed and secreted (RANTES), and eotaxin. Eosinophil migration was induced with bronchial epithelial cell conditioned medium. Eosinophils were stimulated with the ASDs and production of superoxide and eosinophil cationic protein was measured. RESULTS: PM and SD enhanced the production of IL-6, IL-8 and RANTES. However, only IL-6 production was significantly increased with GB. Conditioned medium stimulated PM and SD enhanced the migration of eosinophils. PM and SD strongly activated eosinophils. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: ASD, which contains smaller particles and air pollutants, might exacerbate the inflammatory process of bronchial tissue and asthmatic symptoms with the production of inflammatory mediators and tissue eosinophilia.

The effect of Korean red ginseng on allergic inflammation in a murine model of allergic rhinitis.

Korean red ginseng (KRG) is reported to have anti-allergic properties, including beneficial effects on asthma and atopic dermatitis. However, its effect on allergic rhinitis has not been studied extensively. This study examined how KRG affected allergic inflammation of the nasal cavity in an allergic mouse model. A total of 40 Balb/c female mice were divided into four experimental groups according to treatment and allergic state: group 1 (G1), saline only; group 2 (G2), ovalbumin (OVA); group 3 (G3), OVA+KRG; and group 4 (G4), OVA+dexamethasone. Serum IgE levels were significantly lower in the KRG treatment group (G3) than in the allergic group (G2). However, serum IgG1 levels did not differ between G2 and G3. In the nasal lavage fluid, IL-4 and IL-5 levels were significantly lower in G3 than in G2 (p<0.05). H&E and Luna staining revealed that the eosinophil count was lower in G3 and G4 than in G2 (p<0.05). Immunohistochemical staining revealed that there were fewer IL-4-, IL- 5-, and MUC5AC-positive cells in G3 and G4 than in G2 (p<0.05). These results indicate that KRG reduces the nasal allergic inflammatory reaction in an allergic murine model by reducing Th2 cytokines.

Asian dust and titanium dioxide particles-induced inflammation and oxidative DNA damage in C57BL/6 mice.

Inhaled particulate matter (PM) might influence many adverse health effects in human body, including increased exacerbations of pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases. In this study, we examined the associations between PM and pulmonary adverse effects. Two types of particles, Asian dust (AD) and titanium dioxide (TiO(2)), were administered intratracheally to C57BL/6 mice. The mice were exposed to saline and saline suspensions of 20 mg/kg of AD, TiO(2) particles twice a week for 12 weeks. Following exposure with these particles, the lungs were analyzed histopathologically by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and Masson's trichrome (MT) staining. Oxidative injuries were determined by immunohistochemistry (IHC) for 8-oxoguanine in the lungs and Comet assays in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of C57BL/6 mice. Mice exposed to AD and TiO(2) showed significant inflammatory changes and oxidative damages in the lungs as compared with the control group. DNA damage in PBMCs was also increased significantly in AD and TiO(2)-exposed mice. However, lung fibrosis was minimal and there was no significant difference between PM exposed and control mice. Exposure to AD and TiO(2) particles-induced similar inflammatory damages in the lungs and elicited oxidative DNA damage in the PBMCs.

Asian sand dust enhances rhinovirus-induced cytokine secretion and viral replication in human nasal epithelial cells.

CONTEXT: Asian sand dust (ASD) originating in the arid deserts of Mongolia and China causes annual severe air pollution events in the Asia-Pacific area, including Korea, Japan, and China. ASD is thought to impact public health by aggravating or inducing respiratory illness. Among the most common respiratory illnesses is the common cold caused by rhinovirus (RV) infection. To date, however, the impact of ASD on RV infection has not been studied. OBJECTIVE: In this study, we investigated the effect of ASD on RV infection in human nasal epithelial cells. METHODS: Primary human nasal epithelial cells grown at an air-liquid interface were treated with ASD and/or RV. After RV infections were confirmed using semi-nested reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), mRNA expression and protein secretion of the inflammatory cytokines interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß),IL-6, and IL-8, indicators of the severity of RV-induced inflammation, were measured by real-time PCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Viral titer was also assayed by culturing viruses to compare viral replication between RV-only and ASD-plus-RV groups. RESULTS: ASD significantly increased RV-induced IFN-γ, IL-1ß, IL-6, and IL-8 mRNA levels and protein secretion in primary nasal epithelial cells. In addition, ASD caused a significant increase in RV replication. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that ASD may potentiate common cold symptoms associated with RV infection not only by enhancing IFN-γ, IL-1ß, IL-6, and IL-8 secretion, but also by increasing viral replication.

Expression of heat shock protein 60 kDa is upregulated in cervical cancer.

PURPOSE: Cervical cancer caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV) continues to be the cause of yearly death among women. However, it is a curable disease when diagnosed at an early stage. Recently, several researches have reported that heat shock protein (HSP) 60, a chaperone protein of molecular weight of 60 kDa, is involved in carcinogenesis and apoptosis. In order to evaluate the prognostic significance of HSP60 in cervical cancer, we examined differences in the HSP60 expression between cervical cancer and normal tissues in women. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Tissue samples were collected from 20 cervical cancer patients and 20 normal controls. HSP60 expression of cervical cancer and normal tissues were verified by the 2D gel proteomics, semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot analyses. RESULTS: In 2D proteomic analysis, an increase of HSP60 expression was detected in cervical cancer tissues and confirmed by Western blot analysis (p < 0.05). However, messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of HSP60 did not display any significant differences between cervical cancer and normal tissues. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that HSP60 may be involved in the development of cervical cancer and have profound biological and prognostic significance.

Rarity of TLR4 Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile polymorphisms in the Korean population.

PURPOSE: Activation of the innate immune system and chronic low-grade inflammation are thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and also thought to be associated with type 2 diabetes and its complications. As a receptor for bacterial lipopolysaccharide and heat-shock proteins, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is one of the central regulators of the immune response. Recent studies have reported an association between TLR4 polymorphisms and diabetes and its complications in Caucasian populations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this study, we analyzed the association between TLR4 gene polymorphisms in patients with features of type 2 diabetes and healthy controls in Korea. Two polymorphisms of the TLR4 gene (Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile) were examined in 225 diabetic patients and 153 healthy controls using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP). RESULTS: No Asp299Gly or Thr399Ile mutations were detected in any of the 378 subjects. Seven subjects from each group who had slightly different SSCP patterns were selected for sequencing, but we found no TLR4 polymorphisms on Exon3. The Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile TLR4 gene polymorphisms were absent in both groups, which was similar to the results for Japanese and Chinese Han subjects. CONCLUSION: Our data and other Asian data suggest that a racial difference can be found in the frequency of the TLR4 polymorphism.

Polymorphism at the glutathione S-transferase P1 locus in Korean patients with perennial allergic rhinitis.

BACKGROUND: Oxidative stresses, which induce the reactive oxygen species (ROS), can cause airway inflammation. The glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) protect cells against the effects of ROS. GSTP1 polymorphism may have some effect on allergic rhinitis. Therefore, we have compared the effects of GSTP1 polymorphisms on the perennial allergic rhinitis in Koreans. METHODS: Patients with perennial allergies (149 patients) were selected. The control group included 156 healthy people. Genotypes were evaluated via polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism, using the Alw26I restriction enzyme. RESULTS: There was no significant difference between groups in the proportions of the Ile/Ile (wild type) and Ile/Val (heterozygote) genotypes. However, the Val/Val (mutant type homozygote) was expressed in only one case (0.7%) in the perennial allergic rhinitis group, as compared with 11 cases (7.1%) in the controls (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that the Val/Val genetic polymorphism of GSTP1 may exert some protective effects in allergic inflammation.