Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches in 3D Printing Technologies for Drug Delivery Challenges.

3-Dimensional printing (3DP) constitutes a raft of technologies, based on different physical mechanisms, that generate a 3-dimensional physical object from a digital model. Because of its rapid fabrication and precise geometry, 3DP has gained a prominent focus in biomedical and nanobiomaterials research. Despite advancements in targeted, controlled, and pulsatile drug delivery, the achievement of site-specific and disease-responsive drug release and stringent control over in vivo biodistribution, are still some of the important, challenging areas for pharmaceutical research and development and existing drug delivery techniques. Microelectronic industries are capable of generating nano-/microdrug delivery devices at high throughputs with a highly precise control over design. Successful miniaturizations of micro-pumps with multireservoir architectures for delivery of pharmaceuticals developed by micro-electromechanical systems technology were more acceptable than implantable devices. Inkjet printing technologies, which dispense a precise amount of polymer ink solutions, find applications in controlled drug delivery. Bioelectronic products have revolutionized drug delivery technologies. Designing nanoparticles by nanoimprint lithography showed a controlled drug release pattern, biodistribution, and in vivo transport. This review highlights the "top-down" and "bottom-up" approaches of the most promising 3DP technologies and their broader applications in biomedical and therapeutic drug delivery, with critical assessment of its merits, demerits, and intellectual property rights challenges.

Pandemic influenza A (H1N1) vaccination among libyan health care personnel: A cross-sectional retrospective study.

CONTEXT: Vaccination rate among health-care personnel's (HCPs) are not promising notwithstanding the World Health Organization campaigns over three decades resulting in compromising patient safety. The H1N1 virus, which caused a world-wide pandemic earlier has now transformed into a seasonal flu virus. AIMS: The aim of this study was to analyze the incidence of 2009-10 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) vaccination among Libyan HCPs in four hospitals of Al-Zawia, Libya. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A questionnaire, which listed eight sections of parameters distributed among 310 HCPs to assess the vaccination rate and resulting adverse effects. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson's χ(2)-test and Student's t-test where appropriate. RESULTS: The overall pandemic A (H1N1) vaccination among all HCPs was only 107 (39.9%) out of 268 respondents. The distribution of respondents based on physicians, other staff and sex were found significant (P < 0.05). The common barriers of H1N1 vaccination being lack of awareness fear of adverse effects, allergies and religious beliefs. The major adverse effect observed was erythema in 95.56% of physicians and 87.1% in other staff. About 2% of HCPs have reported arthralgia. No significant differences existed between the responses of general variables and adverse effects. The glycoprotein 120 and squalene were found responsible for the reported adverse effects. 37 (82.22%) vaccinated medical HCPs have advised their patients to get vaccinated. CONCLUSIONS: Due to recurrence of H1N1 influenza in recent times, vaccination campaigns should be promoted immediately to address the knowledge gap of HCPs for intervention by regulatory and health organizations in Libya. The health belief model could be applied to improve vaccination among HCPs.