Psychological well-being Asian style: the perspective of Thai elders.

Psychological well-being is an important aspect of life quality for older adults. Asian elders may have a distinctly different perspective from Westerners concerning the meaning of psychological well-being. Using qualitative research methods, this study focused on the views of Thai elders. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with 67 Thai people aged 60 and over. Transcripts were content analyzed resulting in the identification of five dimensions of well-being: harmony, interdependence, acceptance, respect and enjoyment. When compared to research in the United States, some of the dimensions of psychological well-being were distinct while others were overlapping. Implications are discussed in relation to the development of culturally-relevant measures of well-being.

Effect of adults' self-regulation of diabetes on quality-of-life outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationships among cognitive representations of diabetes, diabetes-specific health behaviors, and quality of life using Leventhal and Diefenbach's self-regulation model of illness (Leventhal H, Diefenbach M: The active side of illness cognition. In Mental Representation in Health and Illness. SkeltonJA, Croyle RT, Eds. New York, Springer-Verlag, 1991, p. 247-272). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: This research involved secondary analysis of a mailed survey completed by 296 adults (ages 20-90 years). Structural equation modeling was conducted to investigate relationships among cognitive representations, diabetes-specific health behaviors, and quality of life. Model differences by diabetes type were also investigated. RESULTS: Findings indicated that certain cognitive representation constructs were related to increased diabetes-specific health behaviors, decreased sense of burden, and positive quality-of-life outcomes. Individuals levels of understanding of diabetes and their perceptions of control over diabetes were the most significant predictors of outcomes. However, diabetes-specific health behaviors were related to an increased sense of burden that was negatively associated with quality of life. Multigroup analyses indicated that this self-regulatory model provided a good fit for individuals with type 1 diabetes, those with type 2 diabetes who take insulin, and those with type 2 diabetes who do not take insulin. CONCLUSIONS: These findings advance what is known about cognitive representations of illness and the self-regulation of diabetes as well as the relationships between cognitive representations of illness, quality of life, and behavioral factors. In particular, results from this study suggest the need for further study to address ways of reducing the burden of diabetes associated with health behaviors and decreased quality of life.

Aging, religious doubt, and psychological well-being.

The purpose of this study is twofold: (a) To see whether religious doubt is related to psychological well-being and (b) to test for age differences in the relationship between these constructs. The data come from a national sample of Presbyterians. The findings suggest that doubt is associated with greater psychological distress and diminished feelings of well-being. Moreover, the results reveal that the deleterious effects of doubt are greater for younger than for older people. Implications for practice with adults across the life span are suggested.

Respect for the elderly in Asia: stability and change.

This study analyzes data from seventy-nine focus groups conducted in the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, and Thailand. The research examined ways in which respect for the elderly is experienced in these four countries, the extent to which respect has changed over time, and the reasons for changes in respect for the elderly. Using qualitative analysis, five distinct dimensions of respect were identified: gestures and manners, tokens, customs and rituals, asking for advice, and obedience. Focus group discussions indicated that changes have occurred on most of these dimensions of respect. The changes were attributed to variations in family structure and function, education, income, and modernization. These findings are discussed in relation to changing definitions of respect and variations in the way in which respect for the elderly is expressed in Asia.

Religion, social support, and health among the Japanese elderly.

We address three issues in this paper: (1) Is religion related to self-rated health, (2) do these salubrious effects arise because religion encourages people to provide help to significant others, and (3) is the relationship between religion and helping others more evident among older men than elderly women? We analyze the relationships among religion, support giving, and health with data provided by a national probability sample of 2,153 older people in Japan who were interviewed face-to-face in 1996. Greater involvement in religion is associated with providing help to others more often, but these effects emerge for older men only. Regardless of gender, elders who provide assistance to others more often rate their health more favorably than older adults who are less involved in helping others. These results confirm that religion is related to health, and that helping others may explain at least part of the reason for this relationship.

Forms of communication: a cross-cultural comparison of older married couples in the USA and Japan.

Interviews were conducted with 24 older couples in the USA and Japan. Spouses participated in a causal conversation during which they discussed their marital history. The dialogue between the spouses was examined in relation to five forms of communication: prompting, questioning, echoing, contradicting, and teasing. Results from this analysis challenge some of the stereotypes concerning Japanese and American communication patterns. Couples in both countries engaged in teasing but the purpose of these kinds of exchanges differed for the American and the Japanese spouses. Findings are discussed in relation to cultural and gender differences and similarities in forms of communication between older spouses.

The effects of positive and negative social exchanges on aging adults.

This study tested various models of the effects of positive and negative exchanges on positive and negative affect using structural equation modeling. Based on a probability sample of middle-aged and older adults, the relationships between social exchanges and psychological well-being were examined both within the total sample and within subgroups of individuals who had experienced few vs many life events. Within the general population, the Domain Specific Model resulted in the best fit. That is, positive exchanges were associated with positive affect, and negative exchanges were associated with negative affect. However, among the subgroup that had experienced more life events, there was a significantly stronger relationship between negative exchanges and negative affect. These findings suggest that, to understand the effects of social exchanges, it is important to consider the context of life events.

Gender and relationship differences in caregiving patterns and consequences among employed caregivers.

Gender and relationship differences in caregiving (i.e., for a spouse, parent, parent-in-law, other relative, or friend) are investigated among a sample of employed caregivers (N = 2,174). No gender differences were found in the provision of 7 of 13 caregiving tasks, but women devoted more time and were more likely to be primary caregivers. After controlling for other key variables, relationship added modestly to the ability to predict all five measures of caregiving consequences, and gender further added nominally to the ability to predict three of the measures. The findings lend support to the gender-role socialization hypothesis (Miller & Cafasso, 1992) and suggest the targeting of services to caregivers of spouses and parents, especially female caregivers.

Caregiving for parents and parents-in-law: is gender important?

This article analyzes cross-sectional data collected from 1,585 employed caregivers of parents and parents-in-law. Hierarchical regression models were used to examine the additive and multiplicative effects of relationship status (parent or parent-in-law) and gender on caregiving activities, resources, and costs. Findings indicate that both the caregiver's gender and the elder's gender are associated with care provided to and from parents and parents-in-law. Results also show that daughters-in-law are especially vulnerable because they receive few resources from elders. Practice implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Assessments of social support exchanges: cognitions of the old-old.

In this study of the old-old, perceptions of thirty-one individuals regarding exchanges in their social relationships are explored. Two questions are addressed: 1) What cognitive mechanisms are used to assess equity in social exchanges? 2) What is the relationship between these mechanisms and other psychological phenomena? Using a qualitative methodology, six cognitive mechanisms are identified. Their use appears to be associated with both beneficial and detrimental subjective reactions. Findings from this study suggest that cognitive mechanisms are an important focus of inquiry because they may mediate the relationship between social exchanges and well-being.

A program for caregivers in the workplace.

In four demonstration sites, an educational seminar series was offered to employed caregivers, followed by a choice of service options (i.e., care planning, a support group, a buddy system). An increase in absenteeism and knowledge of aging services was associated with attendance at the seminar series. Among the service options, only care planning and support groups were utilized by employees. A decrease in negative affect was associated with each of the options.

Supportive relationships in later life.

We adopted a multidimensional approach to the study of the social support convoys of older adults. We distinguished between age and gender differences in four specific dimensions of the social support convoy: (a) existence versus functioning of relationships in the convoy, (b) kinds of relationships (i.e., those with children, siblings, and friends), (c) types of social support (i.e., emotional support, respect, and health support), and (d) receipt versus provision of support. Using a national survey of 718 adults, multivariate and univariate analyses of variance were performed to determine age and gender differences in these four dimensions of social support. The multidimensional approach was useful in pinpointing those aspects of the social support convoy affected by aging. We anticipated that the social support convoy would be devastated by aging. Instead, we found that older people received less support (i.e., emotional and health support) in the absence of sibling relationships. Otherwise, the effects of aging had more to do with what the older person contributed to the convoy than with what he or she received. Women had better social support resources than men, particularly within their friendships. We found no evidence, however, that women's social support advantage counterbalanced the effects of aging on the convoy.

Reciprocal and nonreciprocal social support: contrasting sides of intimate relationships.

This study focused on the perception of reciprocal and nonreciprocal support within the natural support network of family and friends. Data from a national probability sample of 718 middle-aged and older adults were examined. Hypotheses based on equity theory were developed to test the effect of perceived reciprocated versus nonreciprocated confiding and sick care vis-à-vis spouse, children, and friends. Initial results indicated that the modal response for all age groups was reciprocated confiding and sick care. However, a closer examination revealed a complex pattern of the extent and effects of perceived support when considering different relationships. These findings are discussed within a life-course perspective with individuals providing and receiving support over time.

Conjugal social support: patterns in later life.

This investigation of conjugal social support was based on 412 married respondents from a national sample of adults 50 years of age or older. A review of the literature yielded hypotheses concerning the exchange of three forms of support: emotional support, respect, and health-related support. Results showed that older respondents were least likely to provide each form of social support. These findings were reviewed in light of evidence for increased need for support in later life. The perceptual bases of social support were discussed in conjunction with the finding that women perceive less social support within marriage than men.