Increase of continuous treatments and regional citrate anticoagulation during renal replacement therapy in the ICUs of the North-West of Italy from 2007 to 2015.

BACKGROUND: Few reports have addressed the change in renal replacement therapy (RRT) management in the Intensive care Units (ICUs) over the years in western countries. This study aims to assess the trend of dialytic practice in a 4.5-million population-based study of the northwest of Italy. METHODS: A nine-year survey covering all the RRT provided in the ICUs. Consultant nephrologists of the 26 Nephrology and Dialysis centers reported their activities in the years 2007, 2009, 2012, and 2015. RESULTS: From 2007 to 2015 the patients treated increased from 1042 to 1139, and the incidence of RRT from 254 to 263 cases/10^6 inhabitants. The workload for dialysis center was higher in the larger hub hospitals. RRT for acute kidney injury (AKI), continuation of treatment in chronically dialyzed patients, or extrarenal indications accounted for about the stable rate of 70, 25 and 5% of all RRT sessions, respectively. Continuous modality days increased from 2731 days (39.5%) in 2007 to 5076 (70.6%) in 2015, when the continuous+prolonged treatment days were 6880/7196 (95.6% of total days). As to RRT timing, in 2015 only the classical clinical criteria, and no K-DIGO stage were adopted by most Centers. As to RRT interruption, in 2015 urine volume was the first criterion. Implementation of citrate anticoagulation (RCA) for RRT patients significantly increased from 2.8% in 2007 to 30.9% in 2015, when it was applied in all 26 Centers. CONCLUSIONS: From 2007 to 2015, current practice has changed towards shared protocols, with increasing continuous modality and RCA implementation.

[Differential diagnosis of acute kidney injury in critically ill patients: the nephrologist's role in identifying the different causes of parenchymal damage].

The management of acute kidney injury in the critical area is complex and necessarily multidisciplinary, but the nephrologist should maintain a pivotal role, both in terms of diagnosis and of indication, prescription and management of extracorporeal replacement therapy. The most frequent causes of AKI in the critically ill patients are correlated to sepsis and major surgery, but the incidence of different causes, of strict nephrological relevance, is probably higher than the estimate. Nephrologists have the competence to evaluate data relating to renal functions, urinary electrolytes, urinary sediment, and to identify which specific examinations can be useful to define the cause of AKI. A nephrological consultation will therefore improve the clinical management of AKI by guiding and integrating the diagnostic path with traditional or more advanced assessments, useful for the identification of the different causes of acute kidney damage and consequently of the most appropriate therapy. The etiological diagnosis of AKI will also be crucial in defining the renal prognosis and therefore an appropriate nephrological follow up.

[The management of antibiotic therapy in critically ill patients with AKI: between underdosing and toxicity].

Changes in microbiology and dialysis techniques in intensive care have made the use of antibiotics on nephropathic patients more complex. Several recent studies have modified our knowledge about the use of antibiotics in the care of critically ill patients, highlighting the frequency of their inappropriate use: both underdosing, risking low efficacy, and overdosing, with an increase in toxicity. Kidneys, organs devoted to excretion and metabolism, are a potential target of pharmacological toxicity. Extracorporeal replacement therapy is also a possible drug elimination route. What we call nefropharmacology represents a complex, tangled and rapidly evolving subject of multi-specialist interest. We have reviewed here most of the recent literature dealing with the appropriateness of antibiotic use, focusing on the most interesting contributions from a nephrological perspective.

Metformin-Associated Lactic Acidosis Undergoing Renal Replacement Therapy in Intensive Care Units: A Five-Million Population-Based Study in the North-West of Italy.

BACKGROUND: Metformin-associated lactic acidosis (MALA) is a severe complication of drug administration with significant morbidity and mortality. So far no study in large population areas have examined the incidence, clinical profile and outcome of acute kidney injury (AKI)-MALA patients admitted in intensive care units (ICUs) and treated by renal replacement therapy (MALA-RRT). METHODS: Retrospective analysis over a 6-year period (2010-2015) in Piedmont and Aosta Valley regions (5,305,940 inhabitants, 141,174 diabetics treated with metformin) of all MALA-RRT cases. RESULTS: One hundred and seventeen cases of AKI-MALA-RRT were observed (12.04/100,000 metformin treated diabetics, 1.45% of all RRT-ICU patients). Survival rate was 78.3%. The average duration of RRT was 4.0 days at mean dialysis effluent of 977 mL/kg/day. At admission most patients were dehydrated, and experienced shock and oliguria. CONCLUSION: Our data showed that MALA-RRT is a common complication, needing more prevention. Adopted policy of early, extended, continuous and high efficiency dialysis could contribute to an observed high survival rate. Video Journal Club "Cappuccino with Claudio Ronco" at http://www.karger.com/?doi=471917.

Regional citrate anticoagulation for renal replacement therapies in patients with acute kidney injury: a position statement of the Work Group "Renal Replacement Therapies in Critically Ill Patients" of the Italian Society of Nephrology.

Patients with acute kidney injury (AKI) on renal replacement therapy (RRT) are at increased risk for bleeding but usually require anticoagulation of the extracorporeal circuit, a key prerequisite for delivery of an adequate RRT dose. To this end, many anti-hemostatic strategies have been proposed, unfractionated heparin--with all of its significant drawbacks and complications--being the most common method used so far. In this clinical context, regional citrate anticoagulation (RCA) could represent the most promising strategy, and it has been endorsed by recent guidelines on AKI. The aim of this position statement is to critically review the current evidence on RCA for the extracorporeal circuit of RRT in patients with AKI, in order to provide suggestions for its application in clinical practice. To this purpose, the most relevant clinical studies and recent guidelines on AKI with special regard to anti-hemostatic strategies for RRT circuit maintenance have been reviewed and commented. Experts from the Working Group "Renal Replacement Therapies in Critically Ill Patients" of the Italian Society of Nephrology have prepared this position paper, which discusses the basic principles, advantages and drawbacks of RCA based on the available safety and efficacy data. Advice is given on how to use and monitor RCA in the different RRT modalities, in order to avoid complications while maximizing the delivery of the prescribed RRT dose.

[Quality of life assessment in dialyzed patients in the Cuneo area]. / Valutazione della qualita' di vita dei dializzati del cuneese.

The concept of quality of life includes several aspects of physical and psychological status. In a medical setting the evaluation of quality of life comprises physiopathological and clinical aspects as well as patient well-being and functioning. The aims of this study were to carry out an updated evaluation of the health status and quality of life of chronic dialysis patients in a defined geographic area; to obtain data comparable with other studies or other populations; and to identify possible action or interventions. The tool chosen to achieve these aims was the Italian version of SF36. The SF36 survey was filled in and returned by 78% of patients; the mean rate of missing data was 5%. The results showed that physical aspects were the most compromised, whereas the dialyzed patients' mental status was reasonably intact. Peritoneal dialysis patients had better scores than hemodialysis patients. Age and time on dialysis were closely related to quality of life. The obtained data confirm that end-stage renal disease provokes physical invalidity and disability, severely compromising the health and quality of life of patients and their caregivers. The resulting picture describes a dialysis patient mainly affected by physical problems and difficult management of treatment but with a good mental endurance, who is seeking to regain the autonomy lost due to the disease but also the possibility to socialize and exchange experiences with fellow patients.

Coupled plasma filtration adsorption.

Sepsis is one of the main causes of death in critically ill patients worldwide, and in many cases it is associated with renal and/or other organ failure. However, we do not have a unique efficient therapy to reduce this extremely high mortality rate. In the last years interest around the use of extracorporeal blood purification techniques has increased. One of the emerging treatments in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock is coupled plasma filtration adsorption (CPFA), a novel extracorporeal blood purification therapy aimed at a nonselective reduction of the circulating levels and activities of both pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators. Early experimental studies and the following clinical trials have demonstrated impressive results regarding hemodynamics and respiratory parameters, even in patients without concomitant acute renal injury, paralleled by a quick tapering of vasoactive drugs. Considering the still high morbidity and mortality rates in septic shock patients, this new blood purification technique seems to have benefits when applied early in the course of sepsis, also without renal indications, suggesting that it might be performed to prevent rather than to treat acute kidney injury.

Acute renal failure in critically ill patients: indications for and choice of extracorporeal treatment.

The prescription of extracorporeal therapy for patients with acute renal failure involves many options: dialysis sessions may be intermittent or continuous, semicontinuous or slow-extended, with controversial indications still to be defined also depending on technical and logistic issues and related to the multidisciplinary cooperation needed in the management of critically ill patients. All efforts to evaluate extracorporeal treatments in these patients must be targeted not only towards supporting renal function, but towards all functional and metabolic derangements that can result from artificial blood purification, in any way achievable.

Clinical effects of online dialysate and infusion fluids.

Online hemodiafiltration appears to be the most effective technique of renal replacement therapy in many respects. Removal of small and high-molecular weight substances is enhanced. Modern technology ensures a safe, online production of reinfusion fluids. Nonetheless, stringent maintenance rules are required for the production of sterile and nonpyrogenic-dialysate solutions. In this review, we will critically review the state of the art of the clinical effects derived from the use of ultrapure dialysate and the online production of dialysate fluids in high-flux hemodiafiltration.

Rasburicase therapy in acute hyperuricemia and renal dysfunction.

Neoplastic disorders may be complicated by acute renal failure (ARF). Different tumors may cause ARF: solid tumors involving the kidney, solid tumors not of hematological origin and not primarily involving the kidney or, more frequently, rapidly developing hematological tumors. The pathogenesis of ARF is different depending on the type of cancer, but the most frequent clinical feature is the acute tumor lysis syndrome, characterized by hyperuricemia, hyperphosphatemia, hyperkalemia, hypocalcemia and acute, frequently oliguric, ARF. The presence of a neoplastic disorder and associated acute illness may sometimes lead to the presence of immunodysfunction, septic complications and multiple organ dysfunction. In these settings patients develop systemic inflammation and diffuse endothelial damage, related to different mediators. Among these substances, in cancer patients, high circulating levels of uric acid are a common finding. Hyperuricemia is caused by the increase of purine metabolism, which is result of the increased cellular turnover or the aggressive cancer chemotherapy regimens that worsen cell lysis and release of purine metabolites. Even if hyperuricemia is not the first insult to the kidney, its development might represent a concomitant factor aggravating other previous or simultaneous insults. The most efficient therapy for lowering uric acid is rasburicase, a recombinant form of urate oxidase, a nonhuman proteolytic enzyme that oxidizes uric acid to allantoin. It is efficacious in reducing serum uric acid levels with associated diuresis more effectively and much faster than allopurinol, and to correct renal dysfunction more rapidly than allopurinol.

Longitudinal study of apoptosis in chronic uremic patients.

Uremia is associated with a state of immune dysfunction, increasing infection and malignancy rates. Dysregulation of homeostasis may be directly related to abnormal apoptosis regulation, a process which is crucial for the maintenance of the biologic system. Abnormal apoptosis rates (ARs) have been reported in the literature. We performed a longitudinal study over a 10-week period in three groups of uremic subjects-hemodialysis (HD), peritoneal dialysis (PD), and predialysis chronic renal failure (CRF). Our results showed that ARs were consistent over the observed period. Monocytes extracted from HD and CRF subjects had higher ARs compared to PD and controls (HD: 26.06 +/- 8.82; CRF: 26.96 +/- 12.81; PD: 14.77 +/- 5.87; C: 11.42 +/- 4.60) when placed in culture medium. The plasma of HD and CRF subjects when incubated with U937 cells had a stronger apoptogenic potential compared with PD and controls (HD: 26.08 +/- 11.39; CRF: 24.87 +/- 9.07; PD: 12.13 +/- 4.51; C: 11.69 +/- 4.02). Inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein [CRP], procalcitonin) and cytokines (interleukin [IL]-1beta, IL-2, IL-10) had a generally poor correlation except for tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha (p < 0.001). The phagocytic ability of U937 cells when incubated with the various plasma demonstrated impaired response in the HD and CRF subjects (HD: 27.56 +/- 6.67; CRF: 30.24 +/- 9.08; PD: 36.55 +/- 9.80; C: 40.04 +/- 6.98). These results suggest continuous renal purification, such as in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD), may have advantages over intermittent therapies in regulating apoptosis and maintaining biologic function and homeostasis.

Effects of biofilm formation on haemodialysis monitor disinfection.

BACKGROUND: Biofilms are composed of communities of micro-organisms adhering to essentially any surface. We evaluated whether biofilm formation in the hydraulic circuit of a purposely contaminated haemodialysis monitor would modify the efficacy of different disinfection modalities against bacteria and endotoxin concentrations. METHODS: A water-borne Pseudomonas aeruginosa (109) suspension was recirculated for 1 h and was left standing for 72 h (stationary phase) in the hydraulic circuit of the monitor. The monitor was then washed and disinfected by different physical (heat, 85 degrees C) or chemical (hypochlorite or peracetic acid) disinfection modalities (protocol A). In protocol B, the bacterial suspension was also recirculated for 1 h, but the monitor was then immediately washed and disinfected by different chemical disinfection modalities (hypochlorite or peracetic acid). RESULTS: Biofilm formation was revealed by scanning and confocal laser electron microscopy after the stationary phase (protocol A), but was absent when the monitor was immediately washed and disinfected (protocol B). In the presence of biofilm (protocol A), heat in association with citric acid was the most effective modality for reducing both colony forming units and endotoxin concentrations, whereas heat by itself was the least effective method of disinfection. Dwelling (60 h) with diluted peracetic acid completely prevented the formation of biofilm. In the absence of biofilm (protocol B), chemical disinfection proved to be effective against both colony forming units and endotoxin concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: We found that biofilm formation may markedly reduce the efficacy of presently available disinfection modalities. Therefore, different disinfection modalities and the combined action of descaling (by citric acid) and disinfection (physical/chemical agents) should be used periodically in haemodialysis monitors. In addition, dwelling with diluted peracetic acid should be adopted whenever monitors are not in use.

Interpreting the mechanisms of continuous renal replacement therapy in sepsis: the peak concentration hypothesis.

Severe sepsis and septic shock are the primary causes of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), which is the most frequent cause of death in intensive care unit patients. Many water-soluble mediators with pro- and anti-inflammatory action such as TNF, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10 play a strategic role in septic syndrome. In intensive care medicine, blocking any one mediator has not led to a measurable outcome improvement in patients with sepsis. CRRT is a continuously acting therapy, which removes in a nonselective way pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators; "the peak concentration hypothesis" is the concept of cutting peaks of soluble mediators through continuous hemofiltration. Furthermore, there is evidence of increased efficacy of high-volume hemofiltration compared to conventional CVVH, and other blood purification techniques that utilize large-pore membranes or sorbent plasmafiltration are conceptually interesting.

Do circulating cytokines really matter in sepsis?

Sepsis remains the major cause of mortality worldwide, claiming millions of lives each year. The past decade has seen major advances in the understanding of the biological mechanisms involved in this complex process. Unfortunately, no definitive therapy yet exists that can successfully treat sepsis and its complications. In this review, we will address the significance of circulating cytokines in the pathophysiology of sepsis and its relevance to new approaches in extracorporeal therapies.