Addition of nocturnal pollinators modifies the structure of pollination networks.

Although the ecological network approach has substantially contributed to the study of plant-pollinator interactions, current understanding of their functional structure is biased towards diurnal pollinators. Nocturnal pollinators have been systematically ignored despite the publication of several studies that have tried to alleviate this diurnal bias. Here, we explored whether adding this neglected group of pollinators had a relevant effect on the overall architecture of three high mountain plant-pollinator networks. Including nocturnal moth pollinators modified network properties by decreasing total connectivity, connectance, nestedness and robustness to plant extinction; and increasing web asymmetry and modularity. Nocturnal moths were not preferentially connected to the most linked plants of the networks, and they were grouped into a specific "night" module in only one of the three networks. Our results indicate that ignoring the nocturnal component of plant-pollinator networks may cause changes in network properties different from those expected from random undersampling of diurnal pollinators. Consequently, the neglect of nocturnal interactions may provide a distorted view of the structure of plant-pollinator networks with relevant implications for conservation assessments.

Facilitated Adaptation as A Conservation Tool in the Present Climate Change Context: A Methodological Guide.

Climate change poses a novel threat to biodiversity that urgently requires the development of adequate conservation strategies. Living organisms respond to environmental change by migrating to locations where their ecological niche is preserved or by adapting to the new environment. While the first response has been used to develop, discuss and implement the strategy of assisted migration, facilitated adaptation is only beginning to be considered as a potential approach. Here, we present a review of the conceptual framework for facilitated adaptation, integrating advances and methodologies from different disciplines. Briefly, facilitated adaptation involves a population reinforcement that introduces beneficial alleles to enable the evolutionary adaptation of a focal population to pressing environmental conditions. To this purpose, we propose two methodological approaches. The first one (called pre-existing adaptation approach) is based on using pre-adapted genotypes existing in the focal population, in other populations, or even in closely related species. The second approach (called de novo adaptation approach) aims to generate new pre-adapted genotypes from the diversity present in the species through artificial selection. For each approach, we present a stage-by-stage procedure, with some techniques that can be used for its implementation. The associated risks and difficulties of each approach are also discussed.

Linking ecological niche models and common garden experiments to predict phenotypic differentiation in stressful environments: Assessing the adaptive value of marginal populations in an alpine plant.

Environmental variation within a species' range can create contrasting selective pressures, leading to divergent selection and novel adaptations. The conservation value of populations inhabiting environmentally marginal areas remains in debate and is closely related to the adaptive potential in changing environments. Strong selection caused by stressful conditions may generate novel adaptations, conferring these populations distinct evolutionary potential and high conservation value under climate change. On the other hand, environmentally marginal populations may be genetically depauperate, with little potential for new adaptations to emerge. Here, we explored the use of ecological niche models (ENMs) linked with common garden experiments to predict and test for genetically determined phenotypic differentiation related to contrasting environmental conditions. To do so, we built an ENM for the alpine plant Silene ciliata in central Spain and conducted common garden experiments, assessing flowering phenology changes and differences in leaf cell resistance to extreme temperatures. The suitability patterns and response curves of the ENM led to the predictions that: (1) the environmentally marginal populations experiencing less snowpack and higher minimum temperatures would have delayed flowering to avoid risks of late-spring frosts and (2) those with higher minimum temperatures and greater potential evapotranspiration would show enhanced cell resistance to high temperatures to deal with physiological stress related to desiccation and heat. The common garden experiments revealed the expected genetically based phenotypic differentiation in flowering phenology. In contrast, they did not show the expected differentiation for cell resistance, but these latter experiments had high variance and hence lower statistical power. The results highlight ENMs as useful tools to identify contrasting putative selective pressures across species ranges. Linking ENMs with common garden experiments provides a theoretically justified and practical way to study adaptive processes, including insights regarding the conservation value of populations inhabiting environmentally marginal areas under ongoing climate change.

Searching for Abiotic Tolerant and Biotic Stress Resistant Wild Lentils for Introgression Breeding Through Predictive Characterization.

Crop wild relatives are species related to cultivated plants, whose populations have evolved in natural conditions and confer them valuable adaptive genetic diversity, that can be used in introgression breeding programs. Targeting four wild lentil taxa in Europe, we applied the predictive characterization approach through the filtering method to identify populations potentially tolerant to drought, salinity, and waterlogging. In parallel, the calibration method was applied to select wild populations potentially resistant to lentil rust and broomrape, using, respectively, 351 and 204 accessions evaluated for these diseases. An ecogeographic land characterization map was used to incorporate potential genetic diversity of adaptive value. We identified 13, 1, 21, and 30 populations potentially tolerant to drought, soil salinity, waterlogging, or resistance to rust, respectively. The models targeting broomrape resistance did not adjust well and thus, we were not able to select any population regarding this trait. The systematic use of predictive characterization techniques may boost the efficiency of introgression breeding programs by increasing the chances of collecting the most appropriate populations for the desired traits. However, these populations must still be experimentally tested to confirm the predictions.

Demographic effects of interacting species: exploring stable coexistence under increased climatic variability in a semiarid shrub community.

Population persistence is strongly determined by climatic variability. Changes in the patterns of climatic events linked to global warming may alter population dynamics, but their effects may be strongly modulated by biotic interactions. Plant populations interact with each other in such a way that responses to climate of a single population may impact the dynamics of the whole community. In this study, we assess how climate variability affects persistence and coexistence of two dominant plant species in a semiarid shrub community on gypsum soils. We use 9 years of demographic data to parameterize demographic models and to simulate population dynamics under different climatic and ecological scenarios. We observe that populations of both coexisting species may respond to common climatic fluctuations both similarly and in idiosyncratic ways, depending on the yearly combination of climatic factors. Biotic interactions (both within and among species) modulate some of their vital rates, but their effects on population dynamics highly depend on climatic fluctuations. Our results indicate that increased levels of climatic variability may alter interspecific relationships. These alterations might potentially affect species coexistence, disrupting competitive hierarchies and ultimately leading to abrupt changes in community composition.

Recent Anthropogenic Plant Extinctions Differ in Biodiversity Hotspots and Coldspots.

During the Anthropocene, humans are changing the Earth system in ways that will be detectable for millennia to come [1]. Biologically, these changes include habitat destruction, biotic homogenization, increased species invasions, and accelerated extinctions [2]. Contemporary extinction rates far surpass background rates [3], but they seem remarkably low in plants [4, 5]. However, biodiversity is not evenly distributed, and as a result, extinction rates may vary among regions. Some authors have contentiously argued that novel anthropic habitats and human-induced plant speciation can actually increase regional biodiversity [6, 7]. Here, we report on one of the most comprehensive datasets to date, including regional and global plant extinctions in both biodiversity hotspots (mostly from Mediterranean-type climate regions) and coldspots (mostly from Eurasian countries). Our data come from regions covering 15.3% of the Earth's surface and span over 300 years. With this dataset, we explore the trends, causes, and temporal dynamics of recent plant extinctions. We found more, and faster accrual of, absolute numbers of extinction events in biodiversity hotspots compared to coldspots. Extinction rates were also substantially higher than historical background rates, but recent declines are evident. We found higher levels of taxonomic uniqueness being lost in biodiversity coldspots compared to hotspots. Causes of plant extinctions also showed distinct temporal patterns, with agriculture, invasions, and urbanization being significant drivers in hotspots, while hydrological disturbance was an important driver in coldspots. Overall, plant extinctions over the last three centuries appear to be low, with a recent (post-1990) and steady extinction rate of 1.26 extinctions/year.

Herbivore corridors sustain genetic footprint in plant populations: a case for Spanish drove roads.

Habitat fragmentation is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity conservation and ecosystem productivity mediated by direct human impact. Its consequences include genetic depauperation, comprising phenomena such as inbreeding depression or reduction in genetic diversity. While the capacity of wild and domestic herbivores to sustain long-distance seed dispersal has been proven, the impact of herbivore corridors in plant population genetics remains to be observed. We conducted this study in the Conquense Drove Road in Spain, where sustained use by livestock over centuries has involved transhumant herds passing twice a year en route to winter and summer pastures. We compared genetic diversity and inbreeding coefficients of Plantago lagopus populations along the drove road with populations in the surrounding agricultural matrix, at varying distances from human settlements. We observed significant differences in coefficients of inbreeding between the drove road and the agricultural matrix, as well as significant trends indicative of higher genetic diversity and population nestedness around human settlements. Trends for higher genetic diversity along drove roads may be present, although they were only marginally significant due to the available sample size. Our results illustrate a functional landscape with human settlements as dispersal hotspots, while the findings along the drove road confirm its role as a pollinator reservoir observed in other studies. Drove roads may possibly also function as linear structures that facilitate long-distance dispersal across the agricultural matrix, while local P. lagopus populations depend rather on short-distance seed dispersal. These results highlight the role of herbivore corridors for conserving the migration capacity of plants, and contribute towards understanding the role of seed dispersal and the spread of invasive species related to human activities.

Evaluating the structure of commensalistic epiphyte-phorophyte networks: a comparative perspective of biotic interactions.

Epiphytic vascular plants comprise an essential part of the tropical flora and are a key component for ecosystem functioning. Some recent studies have used a network approach to investigate the interaction of epiphytes with host phorophytes at the community level. However, knowledge on commensalistic epiphyte-phorophyte network structure still lags behind with regard to other biotic interaction networks. Our goal was to provide a more complete overall perspective on commensalistic epiphyte-phorophyte interaction and its placement with respect to other better studied mutualistic interactions. We hypothesized that the intensity of the fitness effect of the different types of biotic interactions would determine the degree of specialization of the interacting organisms. Thus, commensalistic epiphyte-phorophyte interactions would have lower specialization than mutualistic interactions. We compiled and analysed the structural properties (nestedness, network specialization and modularity) of 12 commensalistic epiphyte-phorophyte networks and compared them with the same metrics to 11 ant-myrmecophyte, 86 pollination and 13 seed dispersal mutualistic networks. Epiphyte-phorophyte networks were nested and modular with regard to the corresponding null models and had greater nestedness than mutualistic networks, whereas specialization and modularity were significantly lower. Commensalistic epiphyte-phorophyte networks of interactions are both nested and modular, and hence, are structured in a similar way to most other types of networks that involve co-evolutionary interactions. Nevertheless, the nature and intensity of the ecological processes involved in the generation of these patterns is likely to differ. The lower values of modularity in commensalistic epiphyte-phorophyte networks are probably due to the low levels of specialization and the lack of co-evolutionary processes between the interacting partners.

Complex fine-scale spatial genetic structure in Epidendrum rhopalostele: an epiphytic orchid.

Orchid seeds are presumably dispersed by wind due to their very small size and thus can potentially travel long distances. However, the few related studies indicate that seeds fall close to their mother plants. Because seed dispersal and colonization patterns can have relevant consequences for long-term species persistence, we assessed the fine-scale genetic structure of the epiphytic orchid Epidendrum rhopalostele to provide insight into these patterns. All individuals in the studied population were georeferenced and genotyped with AFLP-markers. Genetic structure was evaluated at two levels (forest and tree) using three approaches: principal coordinates analysis, model-based clustering, and spatial autocorrelation analysis. Results showed two genetic groups, composed of individuals from almost every tree with orchids. Spatial autocorrelation analysis at the forest level found no significant genetic structure when all individuals were considered, but a pattern of genetic patches was revealed when the analysis was performed separately for each group. Genetic patches had an estimated diameter of 4 m and were composed of individuals from more than one tree. A weak genetic structure was detected at the tree level at distances less than 1.5 m. These results suggest that many seeds fall close to the mother plant and become established in the same host tree. Additionally, a sequential colonization process seems to be the predominant mode of expansion, whereby progeny from orchids in one tree colonize neighboring trees. Thus, the existence of two distinct genetic groups and the presence of genetic patches should be considered when seed sampling for ex situ conservation.

Phenology drives species interactions and modularity in a plant - flower visitor network.

Phenology is often identified as one of the main structural driving forces of plant - flower visitor networks. Nevertheless, we do not yet have a full understanding of the effects of phenology in basic network build up mechanisms such as ecological modularity. In this study, we aimed to identify the effect of within-season temporal variation of plant and flower visitor activity on the network structural conformation. Thus, we analysed the temporal dynamics of a plant - flower visitor network in two Mediterranean alpine communities during one complete flowering season. In our approach, we built quantitative interaction networks and studied the dynamics through temporal beta diversity of species, interaction changes and modularity analysis. Within-season dissimilarity in the identity of interactions was mainly caused by species replacement through time (species turnover). Temporal replacement of species and interactions clearly impacted modularity, to the extent that species phenology emerged as a strong determinant of modularity in our networks. From an applied perspective, our results highlight the importance of considering the temporal variation of species interactions throughout the flowering season and the requirement of making comprehensive temporal sampling when aiming to build functionally consistent interaction networks.

Disentangling Facilitation Along the Life Cycle: Impacts of Plant-Plant Interactions at Vegetative and Reproductive Stages in a Mediterranean Forb.

Facilitation enables plants to improve their fitness in stressful environments. The overall impact of plant-plant interactions on the population dynamics of protégées is the net result of both positive and negative effects that may act simultaneously along the plant life cycle, and depends on the environmental context. This study evaluates the impact of the nurse plant Juniperus sabina on different stages of the life cycle of the forb Helleborus foetidus. Growth, number of leaves, flowers, carpels, and seeds per flower were compared for 240 individuals collected under nurse canopies and in open areas at two sites with contrasting stress levels. Spatial associations with nurse plants and age structures were also checked. A structural equation model was built to test the effect of facilitation on fecundity, accounting for sequential steps from flowering to seed production. The net impact of nurse plants depended on a combination of positive and negative effects on vegetative and reproductive variables. Although nurse plants caused a decrease in flower production at the low-stress site, their net impact there was neutral. In contrast, at the high-stress site the net outcome of plant-plant interactions was positive due to an increase in effective recruitment, plant density, number of viable carpels per flower, and fruit set under nurse canopies. The naturally lower rates of secondary growth and flower production at the high-stress site were compensated by the net positive impact of nurse plants here. Our results emphasize the need to evaluate entire processes and not only final outcomes when studying plant-plant interactions.

Assessing intraspecific variation in effective dispersal along an altitudinal gradient: a test in two Mediterranean high-mountain plants.

BACKGROUND: Plant recruitment depends among other factors on environmental conditions and their variation at different spatial scales. Characterizing dispersal in contrasting environments may thus be necessary to understand natural intraspecific variation in the processes underlying recruitment. Silene ciliata and Armeria caespitosa are two representative species of cryophilic pastures above the tree line in Mediterranean high mountains. No explicit estimations of dispersal kernels have been made so far for these or other high-mountain plants. Such data could help to predict their dispersal and recruitment patterns in a context of changing environments under ongoing global warming. METHODS: We used an inverse modelling approach to analyse effective seed dispersal patterns in five populations of both Silene ciliata and Armeria caespitosa along an altitudinal gradient in Sierra de Guadarrama (Madrid, Spain). We considered four commonly employed two-dimensional seedling dispersal kernels exponential-power, 2Dt, WALD and log-normal. KEY RESULTS: No single kernel function provided the best fit across all populations, although estimated mean dispersal distances were short (<1 m) in all cases. S. ciliata did not exhibit significant among-population variation in mean dispersal distance, whereas significant differences in mean dispersal distance were found in A. caespitosa. Both S. ciliata and A. caespitosa exhibited among-population variation in the fecundity parameter and lacked significant variation in kernel shape. CONCLUSIONS: This study illustrates the complexity of intraspecific variation in the processes underlying recruitment, showing that effective dispersal kernels can remain relatively invariant across populations within particular species, even if there are strong variations in demographic structure and/or physical environment among populations, while the invariant dispersal assumption may not hold for other species in the same environment. Our results call for a case-by-case analysis in a wider range of plant taxa and environments to assess the prevalence and magnitude of intraspecific dispersal variation.

Mycorrhizal preferences and fine spatial structure of the epiphytic orchid Epidendrum rhopalostele.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: The presence of compatible fungi is necessary for epiphytic orchid recruitment. Thus, identifying associated mycorrhizal fungi at the population level is essential for orchid conservation. Recruitment patterns may also be conditioned by factors such as seed dispersal range and specific environmental characteristics. METHODS: In a forest plot, all trees with a diameter at breast height >1 cm and all individuals of the epiphytic orchid Epidendrum rhopalostele were identified and mapped. Additionally, one flowering individual of E. rhopalostele per each host tree was randomly selected for root sampling and DNA extraction. KEY RESULTS: A total of 239 E. rhopalostele individuals were located in 25 of the 714 potential host trees. Light microscopy of sampled roots showed mycorrhizal fungi in 22 of the 25 sampled orchids. Phylogenetic analysis of ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 sequences yielded two Tulasnella clades. In four cases, plants were found to be associated with both clades. The difference between univariate and bivariate K functions was consistent with the random labeling null model at all spatial scales, indicating that trees hosting clades A and B of Tulasnella are not spatially segregated. The analysis of the inhomogenous K function showed that host trees are not clustered, suggesting no limitations to population-scale dispersal. χ(2) analysis of contingency tables showed that E. rhopalostele is more frequent on dead trees than expected. CONCLUSIONS: EPIDENDRUM RHOPALOSTELE establishes mycorrhizal associations with at least two different Tulasnella species. The analysis of the distribution patterns of this orchid suggests a microsite preference for dead trees and no seed dispersal limitation.

Genetic patterns of habitat fragmentation and past climate-change effects in the Mediterranean high-mountain plant Armeria caespitosa (Plumbaginaceae).

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Mountain plants are among the species most vulnerable to global warming, because of their isolation, narrow geographic distribution, and limited geographic range shifts. Stochastic and selective processes can act on the genome, modulating genetic structure and diversity. Fragmentation and historical processes also have a great influence on current genetic patterns, but the spatial and temporal contexts of these processes are poorly known. We aimed to evaluate the microevolutionary processes that may have taken place in Mediterranean high-mountain plants in response to changing historical environmental conditions. METHODS: Genetic structure, diversity, and loci under selection were analyzed using AFLP markers in 17 populations distributed over the whole geographic range of Armeria caespitosa, an endemic plant that inhabits isolated mountains (Sierra de Guadarrama, Spain). Differences in altitude, geographic location, and climate conditions were considered in the analyses, because they may play an important role in selective and stochastic processes. KEY RESULTS: Bayesian clustering approaches identified nine genetic groups, although some discrepancies in assignment were found between alternative analyses. Spatially explicit analyses showed a weak relationship between genetic parameters and spatial or environmental distances. However, a large proportion of outlier loci were detected, and some outliers were related to environmental variables. CONCLUSIONS: A. caespitosa populations exhibit spatial patterns of genetic structure that cannot be explained by the isolation-by-distance model. Shifts along the altitude gradient in response to Pleistocene climatic oscillations and environmentally mediated selective forces might explain the resulting structure and genetic diversity values found.

Response to artificial drying until drought-induced death in different elevation populations of a high-mountain plant.

Climate change is imposing warmer and more arid conditions on high-mountain Mediterranean pastures. The severity of these conditions is more intense in lower elevation populations and may be critical for their survival. In this context, we asked whether local adaptation plays an important role in the response of these populations to climate change, and if so, what mechanisms are involved. Previous works, involving reciprocal sowings suggested the existence of local adaptation in lower elevation populations of Silene ciliata, a perennial representative of high-mountain Mediterranean pastures. To determine if this local advantage is due to better adaptation to more intense water stress conditions, an experiment was conducted in which S. ciliata plants from three populations located at different elevations (Low, Intermediate and High) were subjected to severe artificial water stress. Results showed that plants from the Low population had greater tolerance to water stress than plants from the High population in the earliest stages of water shortage. Furthermore, responses of proteins to specific antibodies related to drought were evaluated. Two representative late-embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins known to play a role in water stress tolerance were expressed throughout the drought treatment in plants from the three populations, with some pattern differences among individuals within populations. This study detected slight evidence of local adaptation to water stress in populations from different elevations.

Kinship rivalry does not trigger specific allocation strategies in Lupinus angustifolius.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Research on the ability of plants to recognize kin and modify plant development to ameliorate competition with coexisting relatives is an area of very active current exploration. Empirical evidence, however, is insufficient to provide a sound picture of this phenomenon. METHODS: An experiment was designed to assess multi-trait phenotypic expression in response to competition with conspecifics of varied degrees of genealogical relatedness. Groups of siblings, cousins and strangers of Lupinus angustifolius were set in competition in a pots assay. Several whole-plant and organ-level traits, directly related to competition for above- and below-ground resources, were measured. In addition, group-level root proliferation was measured as a key response trait to relatedness to neighbours, as identified in previous work. KEY RESULTS: No major significant phenotypic differences were found between individuals and groups that could be assigned to the gradient of relatedness used here. This occurred in univariate models, and also when multi-trait interactions were evaluated through multi-group comparisons of Structural Equation Models. Root proliferation was higher in phenotypically more heterogeneous groups, but phenotypic heterogeneity was independent of the relatedness treatments of the experiment, and root proliferation was alike in the neighbourhoods of siblings, cousins and strangers. CONCLUSIONS: In contrast to recent findings in other species, genealogical relatedness to competing neighbours has a negligible impact on the phenotypic expression of individuals and groups of L. angustifolius. This suggests that kin recognition needs further exploration to assess its generality, the ecological scenarios where it might have been favoured or penalized by natural selection, and its preponderance in different plant lineages.

Congruence between geographic range distribution and local competitive ability of two Lupinus species.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: In spite of its relevance, we lack rigorous evidence on whether widespread species are superior local competitors compared with coexisting narrowly distributed congeners. We ran a competition experiment between two lupins that coexist at their shared geographic range: Lupinus angustifolius L. (widespread) and L. gredensis Gandoger (narrow endemic). • METHODS: We set up mixed and monospecific populations of the two species, monitored survival and fecundity until the death of the whole cohorts, and measured variables of putative relevance to the competition process. We used aster modeling to address lifetime individual fitness and generalized linear models to assess the effect of species, type of competition, and competition environment on a suite of competition indices. • KEY RESULTS: Lupinus angustifolius showed higher fitness and exerted a stronger competitive effect on its heterospecific neighbors. This occurred through higher fecundity late in the season rather than through differential survival at earlier stages. • CONCLUSIONS: This is the first evidence of lifetime superior competitive potential of a widespread species over a narrow endemic congener. This competitive response might scale up to the geographic distribution range and may partially explain the limited distribution of the narrow endemic. Extension to other carefully selected study cases and more in-depth field experiments may help to assess the generality of this pattern and understand how local processes translate into geographic patterns.

Growing with siblings: a common ground for cooperation or for fiercer competition among plants?

Recent work has shown that certain plants can identify their kin in competitive settings through root recognition, and react by decreasing root growth when competing with relatives. Although this may be a necessary step in kin selection, no clear associated improvement in individual or group fitness has been reported to qualify as such. We designed an experiment to address whether genetic relatedness between neighbouring plants affects individual or group fitness in artificial populations. Seeds of Lupinus angustifolius were sown in groups of siblings, groups of different genotypes from the same population and groups of genotypes from different populations. Both plants surrounded by siblings and by genotypes from the same population had lower individual fitness and produced fewer flowers and less vegetative biomass as a group. We conclude that genetic relatedness entails decreased individual and group fitness in L. angustifolius. This, together with earlier work, precludes the generalization that kin recognition may act as a widespread, major microevolutionary mechanism in plants.

CWRML: representing crop wild relative conservation and use data in XML.

BACKGROUND: Crop wild relatives are wild species that are closely related to crops. They are valuable as potential gene donors for crop improvement and may help to ensure food security for the future. However, they are becoming increasingly threatened in the wild and are inadequately conserved, both in situ and ex situ. Information about the conservation status and utilisation potential of crop wild relatives is diverse and dispersed, and no single agreed standard exists for representing such information; yet, this information is vital to ensure these species are effectively conserved and utilised. The European Community-funded project, European Crop Wild Relative Diversity Assessment and Conservation Forum, determined the minimum information requirements for the conservation and utilisation of crop wild relatives and created the Crop Wild Relative Information System, incorporating an eXtensible Markup Language (XML) schema to aid data sharing and exchange. RESULTS: Crop Wild Relative Markup Language (CWRML) was developed to represent the data necessary for crop wild relative conservation and ensure that they can be effectively utilised for crop improvement. The schema partitions data into taxon-, site-, and population-specific elements, to allow for integration with other more general conservation biology schemata which may emerge as accepted standards in the future. These elements are composed of sub-elements, which are structured in order to facilitate the use of the schema in a variety of crop wild relative conservation and use contexts. Pre-existing standards for data representation in conservation biology were reviewed and incorporated into the schema as restrictions on element data contents, where appropriate. CONCLUSION: CWRML provides a flexible data communication format for representing in situ and ex situ conservation status of individual taxa as well as their utilisation potential. The development of the schema highlights a number of instances where additional standards-development may be valuable, particularly with regard to the representation of population-specific data and utilisation potential. As crop wild relatives are intrinsically no different to other wild plant species there is potential for the inclusion of CWRML data elements in the emerging standards for representation of biodiversity data.

Local adaptation enhances seedling recruitment along an altitudinal gradient in a high mountain mediterranean plant.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Germination and seedling establishment, which are critical stages in the regeneration process of plant populations, may be subjected to natural selection and adaptive evolution. The aims of this work were to assess the main limitations on offspring performance of Silene ciliata, a high mountain Mediterranean plant, and to test whether local adaptation at small spatial scales has a significant effect on the success of establishment. METHODS: Reciprocal sowing experiments were carried out among three populations of the species to test for evidence of local adaptation on seedling emergence, survival and size. Studied populations were located at the southernmost margin of the species' range, along the local elevation gradient that leads to a drought stress gradient. KEY RESULTS: Drought stress in summer was the main cause of seedling mortality even though germination mainly occurred immediately after snowmelt to make the best use of soil moisture. The results support the hypothesis that species perform better at the centre of their altitudinal range than at the boundaries. Evidence was also found of local adaptation in seedling survival and growth along the whole gradient. CONCLUSIONS: The local adaptation acting on seedling emergence and survival favours the persistence of remnant populations on the altitudinal and latitudinal margins of mountain species. In a global warming context, such processes may help to counteract the contraction of this species' ranges and the consequent loss of habitat area.