A history of experimental phasing in macromolecular crystallography.

It was just over a century ago that W. L. Bragg published a paper describing the first crystal structures to be determined using X-ray diffraction data. These structures were obtained from considerations of X-ray diffraction (Bragg equation), crystallography (crystal lattices and symmetry) and the scattering power of different atoms. Although W. H. Bragg proposed soon afterwards, in 1915, that the periodic electron density in crystals could be analysed using Fourier transforms, it took some decades before experimental phasing methods were developed. Many scientists contributed to this development and this paper presents the author's own perspective on this history. There will be other perspectives, so what follows is a history, rather than the history, of experimental phasing.

Crystal structure of a Trypanosoma brucei metacaspase.

Metacaspases are distantly related caspase-family cysteine peptidases implicated in programmed cell death in plants and lower eukaryotes. They differ significantly from caspases because they are calcium-activated, arginine-specific peptidases that do not require processing or dimerization for activity. To elucidate the basis of these differences and to determine the impact they might have on the control of cell death pathways in lower eukaryotes, the previously undescribed crystal structure of a metacaspase, an inactive mutant of metacaspase 2 (MCA2) from Trypanosoma brucei, has been determined to a resolution of 1.4 Å. The structure comprises a core caspase fold, but with an unusual eight-stranded ß-sheet that stabilizes the protein as a monomer. Essential aspartic acid residues, in the predicted S1 binding pocket, delineate the arginine-specific substrate specificity. In addition, MCA2 possesses an unusual N terminus, which encircles the protein and traverses the catalytic dyad, with Y31 acting as a gatekeeper residue. The calcium-binding site is defined by samarium coordinated by four aspartic acid residues, whereas calcium binding itself induces an allosteric conformational change that could stabilize the active site in a fashion analogous to subunit processing in caspases. Collectively, these data give insights into the mechanistic basis of substrate specificity and mode of activation of MCA2 and provide a detailed framework for understanding the role of metacaspases in cell death pathways of lower eukaryotes.

New insights into the structure of the reaction centre from Blastochloris viridis: evolution in the laboratory.

Newly determined crystal structures of the photosynthetic RC (reaction centre) from two substrains of the non-sulfur purple bacterium Blastochloris viridis strain DSM 133, together with analysis of their gene sequences, has revealed intraspecies evolutionary changes over a period of 14 years. Over 100 point mutations were identified between these two substrains in the four genes encoding the protein subunits of the RC, of which approximately one-fifth resulted in a total of 16 amino acid changes. The most interesting difference was in the M subunit where the change from a leucine residue to glycine in the carotenoid-binding pocket allowed NS5 (1,2-dihydroneurosporene) to adopt a more sterically favoured conformation, similar to the carotenoid conformation found in other related RCs. The results of the present study, together with a high rate of mutations in laboratory bacterial cultures described recently, suggest that bacteria evolve faster than has been generally recognized. The possibility that amino acid changes occur within protein sequences, without exhibiting any immediately observable phenotype, should be taken into account in studies that involve long-term continuous growth of pure bacterial cultures. The Blc. viridis RC is often studied with sophisticated biophysical techniques and changes such as those described here may well affect their outcome. In other words, there is a danger that laboratory-to-laboratory variation could well be due to different groups not realising that they are actually working with slightly different proteins. A way around this problem is suggested.

High-throughput identification of purification conditions leads to preliminary crystallization conditions for three inner membrane proteins.

An important factor in the crystallization, and subsequent structural determination, of integral membrane proteins is the ability to produce a stable and monodisperse solution of the protein. Obtaining the correct purification detergent to achieve this can be laborious and is often serendipitous. In this study, high-throughput methods are used to analyze the suitability of eight different detergents on the stability of 12 inner transmembrane proteins from Escherichia coli. The best results obtained from the small-scale experiments were scaled up, the aggregation state of the proteins assessed, and all monodisperse protein solutions entered into crystallization trials. This resulted in preliminary crystallization hits for three inner membrane proteins: XylH, PgpB and YjdL and this study reports the methods, purification procedures and crystallization conditions used to achieve this.

The 2011 Joint Sino-U.K. Protein Symposium.

As part of the celebrations marking its Centenary, the Biochemical Society held a joint meeting in Shanghai with the Chinese Protein Society to commemorate the many long-standing collaborations between biochemists from the U.K. and China. Under the overall theme of structural biology of proteins, presentations covering both historical and current research were given by a number of leading biochemists from both countries. Papers based on these talks have been prepared for this issue of Biochemical Society Transactions.

Outer membrane protein A of bovine and ovine isolates of Mannheimia haemolytica is surface exposed and contains host species-specific epitopes.

Mannheimia haemolytica is the etiological agent of pneumonic pasteurellosis of cattle and sheep; two different OmpA subclasses, OmpA1 and OmpA2, are associated with bovine and ovine isolates, respectively. These proteins differ at the distal ends of four external loops, are involved in adherence, and are likely to play important roles in host adaptation. M. haemolytica is surrounded by a polysaccharide capsule, and the degree of OmpA surface exposure is unknown. To investigate surface exposure and immune specificity of OmpA among bovine and ovine M. haemolytica isolates, recombinant proteins representing the transmembrane domain of OmpA from a bovine serotype A1 isolate (rOmpA1) and an ovine serotype A2 isolate (rOmpA2) were overexpressed, purified, and used to generate anti-rOmpA1 and anti-rOmpA2 antibodies, respectively. Immunogold electron microscopy and immunofluorescence techniques demonstrated that OmpA1 and OmpA2 are surface exposed, and are not masked by the polysaccharide capsule, in a selection of M. haemolytica isolates of various serotypes and grown under different growth conditions. To explore epitope specificity, anti-rOmpA1 and anti-rOmpA2 antibodies were cross-absorbed with the heterologous isolate to remove cross-reacting antibodies. These cross-absorbed antibodies were highly specific and recognized only the OmpA protein of the homologous isolate in Western blot assays. A wider examination of the binding specificities of these antibodies for M. haemolytica isolates representing different OmpA subclasses revealed that cross-absorbed anti-rOmpA1 antibodies recognized OmpA1-type proteins but not OmpA2-type proteins; conversely, cross-absorbed anti-rOmpA2 antibodies recognized OmpA2-type proteins but not OmpA1-type proteins. Our results demonstrate that OmpA1 and OmpA2 are surface exposed and could potentially bind to different receptors in cattle and sheep.

Mapping lipid and detergent molecules at the surface of membrane proteins.

Electron-density maps for the crystal structures of membrane proteins often show features suggesting binding of lipids and/or detergent molecules on the hydrophobic surface, but usually it is difficult to identify the bound molecules. In our studies, heavy-atom-labelled phospholipids and detergents have been used to unequivocally identify these binding sites at the surfaces of test membrane proteins, the reaction centres from Rhodobacter sphaeroides and Blastochloris viridis. The generality of this method is discussed in the present article.

The Protein Information Management System (PiMS): a generic tool for any structural biology research laboratory.

The techniques used in protein production and structural biology have been developing rapidly, but techniques for recording the laboratory information produced have not kept pace. One approach is the development of laboratory information-management systems (LIMS), which typically use a relational database schema to model and store results from a laboratory workflow. The underlying philosophy and implementation of the Protein Information Management System (PiMS), a LIMS development specifically targeted at the flexible and unpredictable workflows of protein-production research laboratories of all scales, is described. PiMS is a web-based Java application that uses either Postgres or Oracle as the underlying relational database-management system. PiMS is available under a free licence to all academic laboratories either for local installation or for use as a managed service.

Autotransporter passenger domain secretion requires a hydrophobic cavity at the extracellular entrance of the ß-domain pore.

Whooping cough (pertussis) is a highly contagious acute respiratory illness of humans caused by the Gram-negative bacterial pathogen Bordetella pertussis. The AT (autotransporter) BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein A) is an important B. pertussis virulence factor that confers serum resistance and mediates adherence. In the present study, we have solved the crystal structure of the BrkA ß-domain at 3 Å (1 Å=0.1 nm) resolution. Special features are a hairpin-like structure formed by the external loop L4, which is observed fortuitously sitting inside the pore of the crystallographic adjacent ß-domain, and a previously undiscovered hydrophobic cavity formed by patches on loop L4 and ß-strands S5 and S6. This adopts a ubiquitous structure characteristic of all AT ß-domains. Mutagenesis studies have demonstrated that the hairpin-like structure and hydrophobic cavity are crucial for BrkA passenger domain (virulence effector) translocation. This structure helps in understanding the molecular mechanism of AT assembly and secretion and provides a potential target for anti-pertussis drug design.

Expression, purification, crystallization and initial X-ray diffraction analysis of thiol peroxidase from Yersinia pseudotuberculosis.

Thiol peroxidase is an atypical 2-Cys peroxiredoxin that reduces alkyl hydroperoxides. Wild-type and C61S mutant protein have been recombinantly expressed in Escherichia coli and purified using nickel-affinity chromatography. Initial crystallization trials yielded three crystal forms in three different space groups (P2(1), P6(4) and P2(1)2(1)2(1)) both in the presence and the absence of DTT.

Crystal structure of Leishmania major oligopeptidase B gives insight into the enzymatic properties of a trypanosomatid virulence factor.

Oligopeptidase B (OPB) is a serine peptidase with dibasic substrate specificity. It is found in bacteria, plants, and trypanosomatid pathogens, where it has been identified as a virulence factor and potential drug target. In this study we expressed active recombinant Leishmania major OPB and provide the first structure of an oligopeptidase B at high resolution. The crystallographic study reveals that OPB comprises two domains, a catalytic and a propeller domain, linked together by a hinge region. The structure has been determined in complex with the oligopeptide, protease-inhibitor antipain, giving detailed information on the enzyme active site and extended substrate binding pockets. It shows that Glu-621 plays a critical role in the S1 binding pocket and, along with Phe-603, is largely responsible for the enzyme substrate specificity in P1. In the S2 binding pocket, Tyr-499 was shown to be important for substrate stability. The structure also allowed an investigation into the function of residues highlighted in other studies including Glu-623, which was predicted to be involved in the S1 binding pocket but is found forming an inter-domain hydrogen bond. Additional important salt bridges/hydrogen bonds between the two domains were observed, highlighting the significance of the domain interface in OPB. This work provides a foundation for the study of the role of OPBs as virulence factors in trypanosomatids. It could facilitate the development of specific OPB inhibitors with therapeutic potential by exploiting its unique substrate recognition properties as well as providing a model for OPBs in general.

Expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray crystallographic data from TktA, a transketolase from the lactic acid bacterium Lactobacillus salivarius.

The enzyme transketolase from the lactic acid bacterium Lactobacillus salivarius (subsp. salivarius UCC118) has been recombinantly expressed and purified using an Escherichia coli expression system. Purified transketolase from L. salivarius has been crystallized using the vapour-diffusion technique. The crystals belonged to the trigonal space group P3(2)21, with unit-cell parameters a=b=75.43, c=184.11 A, and showed diffraction to 2.3 A resolution.

Crystallization and initial X-ray diffraction analysis of a mannose-binding lectin from champedak.

Mannose-binding lectin from champedak (Artocarpus integer) is a homotetramer with a single-monomer molecular weight of 16 800 Da. Previous work has shown it to bind IgE and IgM, as well as being a mitogen of T cells in humans. Champedak mannose-binding lectin has successfully been used to detect altered glycosylation states of serum proteins. The protein was crystallized at 293 K in space group P2(1)2(1)2(1) (unit-cell parameters a = 76.89, b = 86.22, c = 95.37 A) and the crystals diffracted to 2.0 A resolution.

Crystal structures of all-alpha type membrane proteins.

Integral membrane proteins are involved in a wide range of essential biological functions and the determination of their three-dimensional structures plays a central role in understanding their function. This review focuses on the structures of one class of integral membrane proteins: the functionally diverse all-alpha type membrane proteins. It gives an overview of all the structures determined by X-ray crystallography, describing each system and structure in turn. It shows that the structures of all-alpha type membrane proteins have made valuable contributions to understanding structure-function relationships in membrane proteins. These range from the first insights into the function of exciting individual proteins to an in-depth knowledge of protein function from entire biological systems.

Crystallization and preliminary structural studies of champedak galactose-binding lectin.

Galactose-binding lectin from champedak (Artocarpus integer) consists of two chains: alpha and beta (133 and 21 amino acids, respectively). It has been shown to recognize and bind to carbohydrates involved in IgA and C1 inhibitor molecules. The protein was purified and crystallized at 293 K. Crystals were observed in two space groups, P2(1) and P2(1)2(1)2, and diffracted to 1.65 and 2.6 A, respectively.

Structure-function dissection of D6, an atypical scavenger receptor.

Chemokines direct leukocyte migration by activating intracellular signalling pathways through G-protein coupled chemokine receptors. However, they also bind to other surface proteins, including a group of molecules which we refer to as 'atypical' chemokine receptors. One such molecule is D6. D6 is structurally-related to other chemokine receptors, and binds specific pro-inflammatory chemokines with high affinity, but surprisingly, when expressed in heterologous cell lines, it is unable to transduce signals after chemokine engagement. Instead, by using the approaches outlined in this chapter, evidence has emerged that D6 acts as a chemokine scavenger which uses unique intracellular trafficking properties to continuously sequester extracellular chemokines into cells. It is envisaged that this suppresses inflammation in vivo by limiting pro-inflammatory chemokine bioavailability, and indeed, D6 deficient mice show exaggerated inflammatory responses to a variety of challenges. In addition to the in vitro functional studies, we also describe the methods we have used to express, purify and analyse large quantities of D6 protein. The unusually high stability of D6 and its broad subcellular distribution enables D6 to be expressed to very high levels in transfected cells, making it possible, at least in principal, to produce enough D6 to allow for purification of quantities suitable for crystallisation. This is a key step on the path towards generating a three-dimensional structure of the molecule. Thus, the protocols we outline have helped establish chemokine scavenging as a novel paradigm in chemokine biology, and may also ultimately provide unprecedented insight into the structure of D6 and other chemokine receptors.

A protocol for high throughput methods for the expression and purification of inner membrane proteins.

The production of diffraction quality crystals for the structural determination of inner membrane proteins relies on obtaining large amounts of stable protein. Achieving this, by finding the correct parameters to successfully express and purify these proteins is often time-consuming and frustrating. The methods described here examine the most important parameters, in both expression and purification, quickly and simply. They take into account methods previously used in successful structural determinations of inner membrane proteins and collect and analyse data for use in further experiments and to investigate overall trends. These methods make use of histidine-tagged membrane proteins with a green fluorescent protein fusion but could be adapted easily for other proteins.

Raman optical activity and circular dichroism reveal dramatic differences in the influence of divalent copper and manganese ions on prion protein folding.

The binding of divalent copper ions to the full-length recombinant murine prion protein PrP23-231 at neutral pH was studied using vibrational Raman optical activity (ROA) and ultraviolet circular dichroism (UV CD). The effect of the Cu2+ ions on PrP structure depends on whether they are added after refolding of the protein in water or are present during the refolding process. In the first case ROA reveals that the hydrated alpha-helix is lost, with UV CD revealing a drop from approximately 25% to approximately 18% in the total alpha-helix content. The lost alpha-helix could be that comprising residues 145-156, located within the region associated with scrapie PrP formation. In the second case, ROA reveals the protein's structure to be almost completely disordered/irregular, with UV CD revealing a drop in total alpha-helix content to approximately 5%. Hence, although Cu2+ binding takes place exclusively within the unfolded/disordered N-terminal region, it can profoundly affect the structure of the folded/alpha-helical C-terminal region. This is supported by the finding that refolding in the presence of Cu2+ of a mutant in which the first six histidines associated with copper binding to the N-terminal region are replaced by alanine has a similar alpha-helix content to the metal-free protein. In contrast, when the protein is refolded in the presence of divalent manganese ions, ROA indicates the alpha-helix is reinforced, with UV CD revealing an increase in total alpha-helix content to approximately 30%. The very different influence of Cu2+ and Mn2+ ions on prion protein structure may originate in the different stability constants and geometries of their complexes.

Multiple roles for the C-terminal tail of the chemokine scavenger D6.

D6 is a heptahelical receptor that suppresses inflammation and tumorigenesis by scavenging extracellular pro-inflammatory CC chemokines. Previous studies suggested this is dependent on constitutive trafficking of stable D6 protein to and from the cell surface via recycling endosomes. By internalizing chemokine each time it transits the cell surface, D6 can, over time, remove large quantities of these inflammatory mediators. We have investigated the role of the conserved 58-amino acid C terminus of human D6, which, unlike the rest of the protein, shows no clear homology to other heptahelical receptors. We show that, in human HEK293 cells, a serine cluster in this region controls the constitutive phosphorylation, high stability, and intracellular trafficking itinerary of the receptor and drives green fluorescent protein-tagged beta-arrestins to membranes at, and near, the cell surface. Unexpectedly, however, these properties, and the last 44 amino acids of the C terminus, are dispensable for D6 internalization and effective scavenging of the chemokine CCL3. Even in the absence of the last 58 amino acids, D6 still initially internalizes CCL3 but, surprisingly, exposure to ligand inhibits subsequent CCL3 uptake by this mutant. Progressive scavenging is therefore abrogated. We conclude that the heptahelical body of D6 on its own can engage the endocytotic machinery of HEK293 cells but that the C terminus is indispensable for scavenging because it prevents initial chemokine engagement of D6 from inhibiting subsequent chemokine uptake.

Residual structure in disordered peptides and unfolded proteins from multivariate analysis and ab initio simulation of Raman optical activity data.

Vibrational Raman optical activity (ROA), measured as a small difference in the intensity of Raman scattering from chiral molecules in right- and left-circularly polarized incident light, or as the intensity of a small circularly polarized component in the scattered light, is a powerful probe of the aqueous solution structure of proteins. The large number of structure-sensitive bands in protein ROA spectra makes multivariate analysis techniques such as nonlinear mapping (NLM) especially favorable for determining structural relationships between different proteins. We have previously used NLM to map a large dataset of peptide, protein, and virus ROA spectra into a readily visualizable two-dimensional space in which points close to or distant from each other, respectively, represent similar or dissimilar structures. As well as folded proteins, our dataset contains ROA spectra from many natively unfolded proteins, proteins containing both folded and unfolded domains, denatured partially structured molten globule and reduced protein states, together with folded proteins containing little or no alpha-helix or beta-sheet. In this article, the relative positions of these systems in the NLM plot are used to obtain information about any residual structure that they may contain. The striking differences between the structural propensities of proteins that are unfolded in their native states and those that are unfolded due to denaturation may be responsible for their often very different behavior, especially with regard to aggregation. An ab initio simulation of the Raman and ROA spectra of an alanine oligopeptide in the poly(L-proline) II-helical conformation confirms previous suggestions that this conformation is a significant structural element in disordered peptides and natively unfolded proteins. The use of ROA to identify and characterize proteins containing significant amounts of unfolded structure will, inter alia, be valuable in structural genomics/proteomics since unfolded sequences often inhibit crystallization.