Secretory co-factors in next-generation cellular therapies for cancer.

Since chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies for hematologic malignancies were approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, numerous "next-generation" CAR T cells have been developed to improve their safety, efficacy, and applicability. Although some of these novel therapeutic strategies are promising, it remains difficult to apply these therapies to solid tumors and to control adverse effects, such as cytokine release syndrome and neurotoxicity. CAR T cells are generated using highly scalable genetic engineering techniques. One of the major strategies for producing next-generation CAR T cells involves the integration of useful co-factor(s) into the artificial genetic design of the CAR gene, resulting in next-generation CAR T cells that express both CAR and the co-factor(s). Many soluble co-factors have been reported for CAR T cells and their therapeutic effects and toxicity have been tested by systemic injection; therefore, CAR T cells harnessing secretory co-factors could be close to clinical application. Here, we review the various secretory co-factors that have been reported to improve the therapeutic efficacy of CAR T cells and ameliorate adverse events. In addition, we discuss the different co-factor expression systems that have been used to optimize their beneficial effects. Altogether, we demonstrate that combining CAR T cells with secretory co-factors will lead to next-generation CAR T-cell therapies that can be used against broader types of cancers and might provide advanced tools for more complicated synthetic immunotherapies.

Quantitative Analytical Method for Single Rain Droplets via Crystal Formation in Photocrosslinking Polymer Gel.

Ion composition contained in individual rain droplets provides important information to investigate the chemistry in rain and clouds, but general rain sampling equipment temporally and spatially averages the information. Determination of the SO42- concentration in an individual rain droplet was achieved by precipitate production in synthesized acrylamide polymer gel. Concentration of the target ion was calculated from the droplet print diameter and precipitation area measured from digital microscope images. We investigated the effects of the interior electrolyte concentration in the polyacrylamide gel and UV irradiation time on the physical properties of the gel and precipitate formation. The precipitated components were identified by scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis. We also clarified the effects of coexisting ions on the reaction between the interior and exterior electrolytes. For actual rainwater, the SO42- concentration estimated by this method was in agreement with the results obtained by ion chromatography.

Detection of substrate binding of a collagen-specific molecular chaperone HSP47 in solution using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy.

Heat shock protein 47 kDa (HSP47), an ER-resident and collagen-specific molecular chaperone, recognizes collagenous hydrophobic amino acid sequences (Gly-Pro-Hyp) and assists in secretion of correctly folded collagen. Elevated collagen production is correlated with HSP47 expression in various diseases, including fibrosis and keloid. HSP47 knockdown ameliorates liver fibrosis by inhibiting collagen secretion, and inhibition of the interaction of HSP47 with procollagen also prevents collagen secretion. Therefore, a high-throughput system for screening of drugs capable of inhibiting the interaction between HSP47 and collagen would aid the development of novel therapies for fibrotic diseases. In this study, we established a straightforward method for rapidly and quantitatively measuring the interaction between HSP47 and collagen in solution using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS). The diffusion rate of HSP47 labeled with Alexa Fluor 488 (HSP47-AF), a green fluorescent dye, decreased upon addition of type I or III collagen, whereas that of dye-labeled protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) or bovine serum albumin (BSA) did not, indicating that specific binding of HSP47 to collagen could be detected using FCS. Using this method, we calculated the dissociation constant of the interaction between HSP47 and collagen. The binding ratio between HSP47-AF and collagen did not change in the presence of sodium chloride, confirming that the interaction was hydrophobic in nature. In addition, we observed dissociation of collagen from HSP47 at low pH and re-association after recovery to neutral pH. These observations indicate that this system is appropriate for detecting the interaction between HSP47 and collagen, and could be applied to high-throughput screening for drugs capable of suppressing and/or curing fibrosis.

Vulnerability of Purkinje Cells Generated from Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 6 Patient-Derived iPSCs.

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 6 (SCA6) is a dominantly inherited neurodegenerative disease characterized by loss of Purkinje cells in the cerebellum. SCA6 is caused by CAG trinucleotide repeat expansion in CACNA1A, which encodes Cav2.1, α1A subunit of P/Q-type calcium channel. However, the pathogenic mechanism and effective therapeutic treatments are still unknown. Here, we have succeeded in generating differentiated Purkinje cells that carry patient genes by combining disease-specific iPSCs and self-organizing culture technologies. Patient-derived Purkinje cells exhibit increased levels of full-length Cav2.1 protein but decreased levels of its C-terminal fragment and downregulation of the transcriptional targets TAF1 and BTG1. We further demonstrate that SCA6 Purkinje cells exhibit thyroid hormone depletion-dependent degeneration, which can be suppressed by two compounds, thyroid releasing hormone and Riluzole. Thus, we have constructed an in vitro disease model recapitulating both ontogenesis and pathogenesis. This model may be useful for pathogenic investigation and drug screening.

Directed Self-Assembly of Triblock Copolymer on Chemical Patterns for Sub-10-nm Nanofabrication via Solvent Annealing.

Directed self-assembly (DSA) of block copolymers (BCPs) is a leading strategy to pattern at sublithographic resolution in the technology roadmap for semiconductors and is the only known solution to fabricate nanoimprint templates for the production of bit pattern media. While great progress has been made to implement block copolymer lithography with features in the range of 10-20 nm, patterning solutions below 10 nm are still not mature. Many BCP systems self-assemble at this length scale, but challenges remain in simultaneously tuning the interfacial energy atop the film to control the orientation of BCP domains, designing materials, templates, and processes for ultra-high-density DSA, and establishing a robust pattern transfer strategy. Among the various solutions to achieve domains that are perpendicular to the substrate, solvent annealing is advantageous because it is a versatile method that can be applied to a diversity of materials. Here we report a DSA process based on chemical contrast templates and solvent annealing to fabricate 8 nm features on a 16 nm pitch. To make this possible, a number of innovations were brought in concert with a common platform: (1) assembling the BCP in the phase-separated, solvated state, (2) identifying a larger process window for solvated triblock vs diblock BCPs as a function of solvent volume fraction, (3) employing templates for sub-10-nm BCP systems accessible by lithography, and (4) integrating a robust pattern transfer strategy by vapor infiltration of organometallic precursors for selective metal oxide synthesis to prepare an inorganic hard mask.

Generation of functional hippocampal neurons from self-organizing human embryonic stem cell-derived dorsomedial telencephalic tissue.

The developing dorsomedial telencephalon includes the medial pallium, which goes on to form the hippocampus. Generating a reliable source of human hippocampal tissue is an important step for cell-based research into hippocampus-related diseases. Here we show the generation of functional hippocampal granule- and pyramidal-like neurons from self-organizing dorsomedial telencephalic tissue using human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). First, we develop a hESC culture method that utilizes bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) and Wnt signalling to induce choroid plexus, the most dorsomedial portion of the telencephalon. Then, we find that titrating BMP and Wnt exposure allowed the self-organization of medial pallium tissues. Following long-term dissociation culture, these dorsomedial telencephalic tissues give rise to Zbtb20(+)/Prox1(+) granule neurons and Zbtb20(+)/KA1(+) pyramidal neurons, both of which were electrically functional with network formation. Thus, we have developed an in vitro model that recapitulates human hippocampus development, allowing the generation of functional hippocampal granule- and pyramidal-like neurons.

Alkylated cage silsesquioxane forming a long-range straight ordered hierarchical lamellar nanostructure.

An alkylated cage silsesquioxane (1), targeting for a new class of bottom-up-type fabricating materials, was successfully synthesized, and its self-assembled structure is described and discussed herein. Through this, it was found that the intermolecular interaction of long alkyl chains of 1 could be manipulated by thermal annealing to form a long-range straight ordered hierarchical lamellar structure with a periodicity of around 5 nm. Subsequent transmission electron microscopy (TEM) clearly identified polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) molecules of 1 arranged in a highly ordered fashion, with a "head-to-head" type bilayered structure. The observation of a sublayer structure measuring approximately 0.4 nm in width was attributed to the highly regular packing of isobutyl groups in POSS molecules identified by TEM analysis. Moreover, the formation of a long-range straight structure with sharp interfacial boundaries, which is difficult to achieve with traditional diblock copolymers, is considered to be of significant importance to developing new practical applications of self-assembled nanostructures.

NMR and mutational identification of the collagen-binding site of the chaperone Hsp47.

Heat shock protein 47 (Hsp47) acts as a client-specific chaperone for collagen and plays a vital role in collagen maturation and the consequent embryonic development. In addition, this protein can be a potential target for the treatment of fibrosis. Despite its physiological and pathological importance, little is currently known about the collagen-binding mode of Hsp47 from a structural aspect. Here, we describe an NMR study that was conducted to identify the collagen-binding site of Hsp47. We used chicken Hsp47, which has higher solubility than its human counterpart, and applied a selective (15)N-labeling method targeting its tryptophan and histidine residues. Spectral assignments were made based on site-directed mutagenesis of the individual residues. By inspecting the spectral changes that were observed upon interaction with a trimeric collagen peptide and the mutational data, we successfully mapped the collagen-binding site in the B/C ß-barrel domain and a nearby loop in a 3D-homology model based upon a serpin fold. This conclusion was confirmed by mutational analysis. Our findings provide a molecular basis for the design of compounds that target the interaction between Hsp47 and procollagen as therapeutics for fibrotic diseases.

Direct in vitro and in vivo evidence for interaction between Hsp47 protein and collagen triple helix.

Hsp47 (heat shock protein 47), a collagen-specific molecular chaperone, is essential for the maturation of various types of procollagens. Previous studies have suggested that Hsp47 may preferentially recognize the triple-helix form of procollagen rather than unfolded procollagen chains in the endoplasmic reticulum. However, the underlying mechanism has remained unclear because of limitations in the available methods for detecting in vitro and in vivo interactions between Hsp47 and collagen. In this study, we established novel methods for this purpose by adopting a time-resolved FRET technique in vitro and a bimolecular fluorescence complementation technique in vivo. Using these methods, we provide direct evidence that Hsp47 binds to collagen triple helices but not to the monomer form in vitro. We also demonstrate that Hsp47 binds a collagen model peptide in the trimer conformation in vivo. Hsp47 did not bind collagen peptides that had been modified to block their ability to form triple helices in vivo. These results conclusively indicate that Hsp47 recognizes the triple-helix form of procollagen in vitro and in vivo.

Hsp47 as a collagen-specific molecular chaperone.

Heat shock protein (HSP) 47 is a 47 kDa collagen-binding glycoprotein localized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It belongs to the serpin family and contains a serpin loop, although it does not have serine protease inhibitory activity. The induction of Hsp47 by heat shock is regulated by a heat shock element in its promoter region, while the constitutive and tissue-specific expression of Hsp47 correlates with that of collagen and is regulated via enhancer elements located in the promoter and intron regions. Hsp47 transiently binds to procollagen in the ER and dissociates in the cis-Golgi or ER-Golgi intermediate compartment region (ERGIC). Gene ablation studies indicated that Hsp47 is essential for embryonic development and the maturation of several types of collagen. The requirement for Hsp47 in collagen maturation may reflect its ability to inhibit collagen aggregation by binding procollagen in the ER and facilitate triple helix formation. In Hsp47-deficient cells, misfolded procollagen aggregates in the ER are degraded by the autophagy-lysosome pathway but not through the ubiquitin proteasome pathway. Hsp47 may be a therapeutic target for collagen-related disorders such as fibrosis, which feature abnormal accumulations of collagen and increased expression of Hsp47. This is supported by mouse models of fibrosis in which knockdown of Hsp47 clearly decreased the accumulation of collagen in fibrotic tissues and prevented the promotion of fibrosis. On the other hand, mutations in Hsp47 cause collagen-related genetic diseases such as osteogenesis imperfecta. Thus, Hsp47 is an indispensible molecular chaperone specific for collagen that is important in several major human diseases.

Autophagy eliminates a specific species of misfolded procollagen and plays a protective role in cell survival against ER stress.

Type I collagen is one of the most abundant proteins in the human body and is essential for tissue formation. Mutations in collagen cause severe abnormalities in bone formation, including osteogenesis imperfecta. Although the mutant collagens are retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and are toxic to the cell, little is known about how they are removed from the ER. Using two independent cell lines that produce misfolded collagens, we recently demonstrated that procollagen, which is misfolded and accumulated as trimers, is eliminated through the autophagy-lysosomal pathway, not through the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway. In contrast, misfolded procollagen monomer is degraded via ERAD. Moreover, autophagic elimination and ERAD occur independently and exert protective roles and promote cell survival. Thus, autophagy and ERAD, in concert, contribute to eliminating toxic species of misfolded and accumulated proteins from the ER.

Autophagic elimination of misfolded procollagen aggregates in the endoplasmic reticulum as a means of cell protection.

Type I collagen is a major component of the extracellular matrix, and mutations in the collagen gene cause several matrix-associated diseases. These mutant procollagens are misfolded and often aggregated in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Although the misfolded procollagens are potentially toxic to the cell, little is known about how they are eliminated from the ER. Here, we show that procollagen that can initially trimerize but then aggregates in the ER are eliminated by an autophagy-lysosome pathway, but not by the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway. Inhibition of autophagy by specific inhibitors or RNAi-mediated knockdown of an autophagy-related gene significantly stimulated accumulation of aggregated procollagen trimers in the ER, and activation of autophagy with rapamycin resulted in reduced amount of aggregates. In contrast, a mutant procollagen which has a compromised ability to form trimers was degraded by ERAD. Moreover, we found that autophagy plays an essential role in protecting cells against the toxicity of the ERAD-inefficient procollagen aggregates. The autophagic elimination of aggregated procollagen occurs independently of the ERAD system. These results indicate that autophagy is a final cell protection strategy deployed against ER-accumulated cytotoxic aggregates that are not able to be removed by ERAD.

One-Step Direct-Patterning Template Utilizing Self-Assembly of POSS-Containing Block Copolymers.

We report the self-assembly of organic-inorganic block copolymers (BCP) in thin-films by simple solvent annealing on unmodified substrates. The resulting vertically oriented lamellae and cylinders are converted to a hard silica mask by a single step highly selective oxygen plasma etching. The size of the resulting nanostructures in the case of cylinders is less than 10 nm.

Type I collagen in Hsp47-null cells is aggregated in endoplasmic reticulum and deficient in N-propeptide processing and fibrillogenesis.

Heat-shock protein of 47 kDa (Hsp47) is a molecular chaperone that recognizes collagen triple helices in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Hsp47-knockout mouse embryos are deficient in the maturation of collagen types I and IV, and collagen triple helices formed in the absence of Hsp47 show increased susceptibility to protease digestion. We show here that the fibrils of type I collagen produced by Hsp47-/- cells are abnormally thin and frequently branched. Type I collagen was highly accumulated in the ER of Hsp47-/- cells, and its secretion rate was much slower than that of Hsp47+/+ cells, leading to accumulation of the insoluble aggregate of type I collagen within the cells. Transient expression of Hsp47 in the Hsp47-/- cells restored normal extracellular fibril formation and intracellular localization of type I collagen. Intriguingly, type I collagen with unprocessed N-terminal propeptide (N-propeptide) was secreted from Hsp47-/- cells and accumulated in the extracellular matrix. These results indicate that Hsp47 is required for correct folding and prevention of aggregation of type I collagen in the ER and that this function is indispensable for efficient secretion, processing, and fibril formation of collagen.