Selective expression of claudin-5 in thymic endothelial cells regulates the blood-thymus barrier and T-cell export.

T-cell development depends on the thymic microenvironment, in which endothelial cells (ECs) play a vital role. Interestingly, vascular permeability of the thymic cortex is lower than in other organs, suggesting the existence of a blood-thymus barrier (BTB). On the other hand, blood-borne molecules and dendritic cells bearing self-antigens are accessible to the medulla, facilitating central tolerance induction, and continuous T-precursor immigration and mature thymocyte egress occur through the vessels at the cortico-medullary junction (CMJ). We found that claudin-5 (Cld5), a membrane protein of tight junctions, was expressed in essentially all ECs of the cortical vasculatures, whereas approximately half of the ECs of the medulla and CMJ lacked Cld5 expression. An intravenously (i.v.) injected biotin tracer hardly penetrated cortical Cld5+ vessels, but it leaked into the medullary parenchyma through Cld5- vessels. Cld5 expression in an EC cell line caused a remarkable increase in trans-endothelial resistance in vitro, and the biotin tracer leaked from the cortical vasculatures in Cldn5-/- mice. Furthermore, i.v.-injected sphingosine-1 phosphate distributed selectively into the medulla through the Cld5- vessels, probably ensuring the egress of CD3high mature thymocytes from Cld5- vessels at the CMJ. These results suggest that distinct Cld5 expression profiles in the cortex and medulla may control the BTB and the T-cell gateway to blood circulation, respectively.

The zonula occludens protein family regulates the hepatic barrier system in the murine liver.

The hepatic barrier is indispensable for the physiological functions of the liver and is impaired under various pathological conditions. Tight junctions reportedly play a central role in hepatic barrier regulation; however, there is limited direct evidence supporting this observation, with few in vivo models or confirmations of the implicated molecular mechanisms presented to date. We inactivated the tight junction component gene, Tjp2/ZO-2, and the related molecule, Tjp1/ZO-1, in mouse livers. In humans, TJP2/ZO-2 mutations have been implicated in the development of human progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis 4 (PFIC4). The mice deficient in either ZO-1 or ZO-2 in the liver did not exhibit major abnormalities. However, the ablation of both molecules impaired the molecular architecture as well as the structure and function of hepatocyte tight junctions, which disrupted the hepatic barrier and was lethal to the mice by 6 weeks of age. In mutant mice, bile canaliculus formation and cellular polarity were compromised; also, transporter expression and localization were deregulated. Moreover, typical hepatic zonation and bile duct formation were inhibited, and sinusoidal vessels were disorganized. These findings clarify the role of tight junctions and polarity in the hepatic barrier as well as the effect that their disruption has on liver tissue. The observations also suggest that liver-specific ZO-1-/- and ZO-2-/- mice could be used as models for PFIC4, and this will provide new insights into liver pathophysiology and clinical applications.

Effects of the differential expression of ZO-1 and ZO-2 on podocyte structure and function.

Glomerular podocytes in the kidney originate from columnar epithelial cells possessing tight junctions. During podocyte differentiation, tight junctions are replaced by slit diaphragms, which are formed between foot processes and function as a blood filtration barrier. Although the expression of most tight junction components is suppressed during podocyte differentiation, several components, including ZO-1 and ZO-2, are consistently expressed. We recently showed that podocyte-specific deletion of ZO-1 gene impaired slit diaphragm formation, leading to proteinuria and glomerular sclerosis. Here, we address the relevance of ZO-2, whose sequence is highly similar to ZO-1, in the maintenance of the structure and function of podocytes. In glomerular development, the spatiotemporal expression of ZO-2 was similar to that of ZO-1 until the capillary loop stage. Subsequently, the distribution patterns of ZO-1 and ZO-2 diverged at the maturation stage, when slit diaphragms are formed. This divergence could partly rely on the ability of ZO-2 to interact with the slit diaphragm membrane proteins. Podocyte-specific deletion of the ZO-2 gene did not cause overt defects; however, double knockout of ZO-1 and ZO-2 genes accelerated the defects observed in ZO-1 knockout mice. These results suggest that ZO-2 plays supportive roles in the ZO-1-dependent regulation of podocyte filtration barrier.

The exon 38-containing ARHGEF11 splice isoform is differentially expressed and is required for migration and growth in invasive breast cancer cells.

Breast cancer invasion involves the loss of cell-cell junctions and acquisition of an invasive, migratory phenotype, and breast cancer cells of the basal intrinsic subtype are more invasive and metastatic than breast cancer cells of other subtypes. ARHGEF11 is a RhoGEF that was previously shown to bind to the tight junction protein ZO-1 at perijunctional actomyosin ring (PJAR), a network of cortically organized actin and myosin filaments associated with junctional complexes that regulates cell-cell adhesion and polarization. We show here that ARHGEF11 shows splice isoform expression that differs according to the intrinsic subtype of breast cancer cells and that controls their invasive phenotype. Luminal subtype breast cancer cells express the isoform of ARHGEF11 lacking exon 38 (38-), which binds to ZO-1 at PJAR and is necessary for formation and maintenance of cell-cell junctions. Basal subtype breast cancer cells express the isoform of ARHGEF11 containing exon 38 (38+), which does not bind to ZO-1 and which drives cell migration and motility. Depletion of ARHGEF11 in basal subtype breast cancer cells is sufficient to alter cell morphology from a mesenchymal stellate form with extensive cell protrusions to a cobblestone-like epithelial form, and to suppress growth and survival both in vitro and in vivo. These findings show that the expression of the particular splice isoform of ARHGEF11 is critically linked to the malignant phenotype of breast cancer cells, identifying ARHGEF11 exon 38(+) as a biomarker and target for therapy of breast cancer.

Identification of the N-terminal transmembrane domain of StarD7 and its importance for mitochondrial outer membrane localization and phosphatidylcholine transfer.

StarD7 facilitates phosphatidylcholine (PC) transfer to mitochondria, and is essential for mitochondrial homeostasis. However, the molecular mechanism for PC transfer by protein remains poorly understood. Herein, we describe a putative novel transmembrane (TM) domain C-terminal to the mitochondria-targeting signal (MTS) sequence at the N-terminus of StarD7. The mature form of StarD7 is integrated and/or associated onto the outer leaflet of the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM) in HEPA-1 and HepG2 cells. A truncated form of StarD7 lacking the TM domain is distributed in the inner space of the mitochondria, and cannot reverse mitochondrial abnormalities, such as complex formation and PC content, when re-expressed in StarD7-KO HEPA-1 cells. Re-expression of wild StarD7 can compensate these mitochondrial functions of StarD7-KO HEPA-1 cells. The precursor form of StarD7 is cleaved between Met76 and Ala77, and Ala77 and Ala78 in the TM domain to produce the mature form. These results suggest that StarD7 is anchored onto the OMM through its N-terminal TM domain, and the C-terminal START domain may extend into the cytoplasm and shuttle PC between the ER and OMM at the ER-mitochondria contact sites.

Human Rho Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factor 11 (ARHGEF11) Regulates Dendritic Morphogenesis.

Disturbances of synaptic connectivity during perinatal and adolescent periods have been hypothesized to be related to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor 11 (ARHGEF11) is a specific guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEF) for RhoA, which is a critical regulator of actin cytoskeleton dynamics and organization of dendritic spines and inhibitor of spine maintenance. ARHGEF11 variants are reported to be associated with a higher risk for the onset of schizophrenia in a Japanese population; however, how ARHGEF11 contributes to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia in dendritic spines is unknown. Therefore, we first studied the distribution, binding, and function of ARHGEF11 in the dendritic spines of the rat cerebral cortex. After subcellular fractionation of the rat cerebral cortex, ARHGEF11 was detected with synaptophysin and post-synaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95) in the P2 fractions including synaptosomal fractions containing presynaptic and postsynaptic density proteins. Endogenous ARHGEF11 was coimmunoprecipitated with synaptophysin or PSD-95. In cortical primary neurons at 28 days in vitro, immunostaining revealed that ARHGEF11 located in the dendrites and dendritic spines and colocalized with PSD-95 and synaptophysin. Overexpression of exogenous ARHGEF11 significantly decreased the number of spines (p = 0.008). These results indicate that ARHGEF11 is likely to be associated with synaptic membranes and regulation of spine.

StarD7 Protein Deficiency Adversely Affects the Phosphatidylcholine Composition, Respiratory Activity, and Cristae Structure of Mitochondria.

Phosphatidylcholine (PC) is a major phospholipid of mitochondria, comprising 40-50% of both the outer and the inner membranes. However, PC must be imported from its production organelles because mitochondria lack the enzymes essential for PC biosynthesis. In a previous study, we found that StarD7 mediates the intracellular transfer of PC to mitochondria. Therefore, in this study, we analyzed the contribution of StarD7 to the maintenance of mitochondrial phospholipid content and function using siRNA-mediated knockdown and knock-out (KO) of the StarD7 gene in HEPA-1 cells. Real time analysis of respiratory activity demonstrated that the oxygen consumption rate and activity of mitochondrial complexes were impaired in StarD7-KD cells. To confirm these results, we established StarD7-KO HEPA-1 cells by double nicking using CRISPR/Cas9n. As expected, StarD7-KD and -KO cells showed a significant reduction in mitochondrial PC content. The ATP level and growth rate of KO cells were notably lower compared with wild-type cells when cultured in glucose-free galactose-containing medium to force cells to rely on mitochondrial ATP production. In KO cells, the level of the MTCO1 protein, a primary subunit of complex IV, was reduced without a concomitant decrease in its mRNA, but the level was restored when StarD7-I was overexpressed. StarD7-KO cells showed impaired formation of the mitochondrial supercomplexes and exhibited a disorganized cristae structure, with no changes in optic atrophy 1 protein. These findings indicate that StarD7 plays important roles in maintaining the proper composition of mitochondrial phospholipids as well as mitochondrial function and morphogenesis.

Transcriptional suppression of CTP:phosphoethanolamine cytidylyltransferase by 25-hydroxycholesterol is mediated by nuclear factor-Y and Yin Yang 1.

Pcyt2 (CTP:phosphoethanolamine cytidylyltransferase) is the rate-limiting enzyme in mammalian PE (phosphatidylethanolamine) biosynthesis. Previously, we reported that Pcyt2 mRNA levels increased in several types of cells after serum starvation, an effect that could be suppressed by supplementation with low-density lipoprotein or 25-HC (25-hydroxycholesterol). Transcription of Hmgcr, which encodes 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase, is also suppressed by 25-HC in the same dose-dependent manner. Nevertheless, a sterol-regulatory element was not detected in the Pcyt2 promoter region. The important element for transcriptional control of Pcyt2 by 25-HC (1.25 µM) was determined to reside between -56 and -36 on the basis of analysis with several Pcyt2 promoter deletion-luciferase reporters in NIH 3T3 cells. Using the yeast one-hybrid system, we found that NF-Y (nuclear factor-Y) binds at C(-37)CAAT(-41) and YY1 (Yin Yang1) binds at C(-42)AT(-40) in the Pcyt2 promoter. Endogenous NF-Y and YY1 bind clearly and competitively to these sites and are important for basal Pcyt2 transcription. Moreover, NF-Y binds to the Hmgcr promoter at C(-14)CA(-12) in gel-shift analysis, and suppression of the basal luciferase activity of the Hmgcr promoter-reporter construct (-30/+61) by 25-HC was abolished when C(-14)CA(-12) was mutated. Furthermore, transcriptional suppression of Pcyt2 by 25-HC was reduced following knockdown targeting of NF-YA or YY1. ChIP analysis revealed that 25-HC inhibited the interaction between NF-Y and RNA polymerase II on the Pcyt2 and Hmgcr promoters. On the basis of these results, we conclude that NF-Y and YY1 are important for the basal transcription of Pcyt2 and that NF-Y is involved in the inhibitory effects of 25-HC on Pcyt2 transcription.

The structural and functional organization of the podocyte filtration slits is regulated by Tjp1/ZO-1.

Blood filtration in the kidney glomerulus is essential for physiological homeostasis. The filtration apparatus of the kidney glomerulus is composed of three distinct components: the fenestrated endothelial cells, the glomerular basement membrane, and interdigitating foot processes of podocytes that form the slit diaphragm. Recent studies have demonstrated that podocytes play a crucial role in blood filtration and in the pathogenesis of proteinuria and glomerular sclerosis; however, the molecular mechanisms that organize the podocyte filtration barrier are not fully understood. In this study, we suggest that tight junction protein 1 (Tjp1 or ZO-1), which is encoded by Tjp1 gene, plays an essential role in establishing the podocyte filtration barrier. The podocyte-specific deletion of Tjp1 down-regulated the expression of podocyte membrane proteins, impaired the interdigitation of the foot processes and the formation of the slit diaphragm, resulting in glomerular dysfunction. We found the possibility that podocyte filtration barrier requires the integration of two independent units, the pre-existing epithelial junction components and the newly synthesized podocyte-specific components, at the final stage in glomerular morphogenesis, for which Tjp1 is indispensable. Together with previous findings that Tjp1 expression was decreased in glomerular diseases in human and animal models, our results indicate that the suppression of Tjp1 could directly aggravate glomerular disorders, highlights Tjp1 as a potential therapeutic target.

Enzymatic and transcriptional regulation of the cytoplasmic acetyl-CoA hydrolase ACOT12.

Acyl-CoA thioesterase 12 (ACOT12) is the major enzyme known to hydrolyze the thioester bond of acetyl-CoA in the cytosol in the liver. ACOT12 contains a catalytic thioesterase domain at the N terminus and a steroidogenic acute regulatory protein-related lipid transfer (START) domain at the C terminus. We investigated the effects of lipids (phospholipids, sphingolipids, fatty acids, and sterols) on ACOT12 thioesterase activity and found that the activity was inhibited by phosphatidic acid (PA) in a noncompetitive manner. In contrast, the enzymatic activity of a mutant form of ACOT12 lacking the START domain was not inhibited by the lipids. These results suggest that the START domain is important for regulation of ACOT12 activity by PA. We also found that PA could bind to thioesterase domain, but not to the START domain, and had no effect on ACOT12 dissociation. ACOT12 is detectable in the liver but not in hepatic cell lines such as HepG2, Hepa-1, and Fa2N-4. ACOT12 mRNA and protein levels in rat primary hepatocytes decreased following treatment with insulin. These results suggest that cytosolic acetyl-CoA levels in the liver are controlled by lipid metabolites and hormones, which result in allosteric enzymatic and transcriptional regulation of ACOT12.

ARHGEF11, a regulator of junction-associated actomyosin in epithelial cells.

Epithelial cells form organized sheets to protect underlying tissues and maintain the physiological environment by the assembly of tight junctions (TJs) and adherens junctions (AJs), which mainly regulate paracellular molecular passage and selective cell-cell adhesion, respectively. At the cytoplasmic surface, TJs and AJs associate with a specific actomyosin cytoskeletal structure called the perijunctional actomyosin ring (PJAR), which encircles cells in a belt-like manner. ZO family proteins play important roles in regulating TJ and PJAR organization. We recently found that ARHGEF11, a member of the RGS-RhoGEF family of proteins, associates with TJs by binding to ZO-1. ARHGEF11 mediates ZO-1-dependent junction assembly and barrier formation in mammary epithelial cells. Another recent study demonstrated that ARHGEF11-dependent apical actomyosin contraction is coupled to planar cell polarity signaling in neuroepithelial cells for the control of neural tube formation. These findings suggest that ARHGEF11 generally regulates apical junctions and junction-associated actomyosin in various epithelial tissues.

Rho GTP exchange factor ARHGEF11 regulates the integrity of epithelial junctions by connecting ZO-1 and RhoA-myosin II signaling.

The organization of the apical junctional complex and its association with the cytoskeleton is essential for the function of epithelial cells. However, knowledge about the signaling pathways that regulate these processes is still fragmentary. Here we found that ARHGEF11, a member of the RGS-RhoGEF family, associates with tight junctions (TJs) by binding to ZO-1, but not to the highly homologous ZO-2, in polarized epithelial cells. In the early phases of cell-cell contact, ARHGEF11 was located at primordial adherens junctions, and then its localization was altered to TJs as epithelial polarity was established, much like ZO-1. Knockdown of ARHGEF11 reduced the phosphorylation of myosin light chain, retarding the assembly of cell-cell junctions and the development of the paracellular barrier. Furthermore, the simultaneous knockdown of ARHGEF11 and ZO-2 resulted in significant impairment of TJs and of the perijunctional actomyosin ring; similar defects arise when both ZO-1 and ZO-2 are depleted. These results suggest that ARHGEF11 mediates RhoA-myosin light chain signaling pathways at cell-cell junctions, functioning in cooperation with ZO-1, to regulate the paracellular barrier and the organization of the apical junctional complex and perijunctional actomyosin ring of epithelial cells.

Similar and distinct properties of MUPP1 and Patj, two homologous PDZ domain-containing tight-junction proteins.

MUPP1 and Patj are both composed of an L27 domain and multiple PDZ domains (13 and 10 domains, respectively) and are localized to tight junctions (TJs) in epithelial cells. Although Patj is known to be responsible for the organization of TJs and epithelial polarity, characterization of MUPP1 is lacking. In this study, we found that MUPP1 and Patj share several binding partners, including JAM1, ZO-3, Pals1, Par6, and nectins (cell-cell adhesion molecules at adherens junctions). MUPP1 and Patj exhibited similar subcellular distributions, and the mechanisms with which they localize to TJs also appear to overlap. Despite these similarities, functional studies have revealed that Patj is indispensable for the establishment of TJs and epithelial polarization, whereas MUPP1 is not. Thus, although MUPP1 and Patj share several molecular properties, their functions are entirely different. We present evidence that the signaling mediated by Pals1, which has a higher affinity for Patj than for MUPP1 and is involved in the activation of the Par6-aPKC complex, is of principal importance for the function of Patj in epithelial cells.

Deficiency of zonula occludens-1 causes embryonic lethal phenotype associated with defected yolk sac angiogenesis and apoptosis of embryonic cells.

Zonula occludens (ZO)-1/2/3 are the members of the TJ-MAGUK family of membrane-associated guanylate kinases associated with tight junctions. To investigate the role of ZO-1 (encoded by Tjp1) in vivo, ZO-1 knockout (Tjp1(-/-)) mice were generated by gene targeting. Although heterozygous mice showed normal development and fertility, delayed growth and development were evident from E8.5 onward in Tjp1(-/-) embryos, and no viable Tjp1(-/-) embryos were observed beyond E11.5. Tjp1(-/-) embryos exhibited massive apoptosis in the notochord, neural tube area, and allantois at embryonic day (E)9.5. In the yolk sac, the ZO-1 deficiency induced defects in vascular development, with impaired formation of vascular trees, along with defective chorioallantoic fusion. Immunostaining of wild-type embryos at E8.5 for ZO-1/2/3 revealed that ZO-1/2 were expressed in almost all embryonic cells, showing tight junction-localizing patterns, with or without ZO-3, which was confined to the epithelial cells. ZO-1 deficiency depleted ZO-1-expression without influence on ZO-2/3 expression. In Tjp1(+/+) yolk sac extraembryonic mesoderm, ZO-1 was dominant without ZO-2/3 expression. Thus, ZO-1 deficiency resulted in mesoderms with no ZO-1/2/3, associated with mislocalization of endothelial junctional adhesion molecules. As a result, angiogenesis was defected in Tjp1(-/-) yolk sac, although differentiation of endothelial cells seemed to be normal. In conclusion, ZO-1 may be functionally important for cell remodeling and tissue organization in both the embryonic and extraembryonic regions, thus playing an essential role in embryonic development.

Targeting lipid metabolism in the treatment of hepatitis C virus infection.

Recently, microdomains of organelle membranes rich in sphingomyelin and cholesterol (called "lipid rafts") have been considered to act as a scaffold for the hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication complex. Using the HCV cell culture system, we investigated the effect of myriocin, a sphingomyelin synthesis inhibitor, on HCV replication. We also investigated the combined effect of myriocin with interferon (IFN) and myriocin with simvastatin. Myriocin suppressed replication of both a genotype 1b subgenomic HCV replicon (Huh7/Rep-Feo) and genotype 2a infectious HCV (JFH-1 HCV) in a dose-dependent manner (for subgenomic HCV-1b, maximum of 79% at 1000 nmol/L; for genomic HCV-2a, maximum of 40% at 1000 nmol/L). Combination treatment with myriocin and IFN or myriocin and simvastatin attenuated HCV RNA replication synergistically in Huh7/Rep-Feo cells. Our data demonstrate that the sphingomyelin synthesis inhibitor strongly suppresses replication of both the subgenomic HCV-1b replicon and the JFH-1 strain of genotype 2a infectious HCV, indicating that lipid metabolism could be a novel target for HCV therapy.

Rap1 integrates tissue polarity, lumen formation, and tumorigenic potential in human breast epithelial cells.

Maintenance of apico-basal polarity in normal breast epithelial acini requires a balance between cell proliferation, cell death, and proper cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix signaling. Aberrations in any of these processes can disrupt tissue architecture and initiate tumor formation. Here, we show that the small GTPase Rap1 is a crucial element in organizing acinar structure and inducing lumen formation. Rap1 activity in malignant HMT-3522 T4-2 cells is appreciably higher than in S1 cells, their nonmalignant counterparts. Expression of dominant-negative Rap1 resulted in phenotypic reversion of T4-2 cells, led to the formation of acinar structures with correct polarity, and dramatically reduced tumor incidence despite the persistence of genomic abnormalities and baseline growth. The resulting acini contained prominent central lumina not observed when other reverting agents were used. Conversely, expression of dominant-active Rap1 in T4-2 cells inhibited phenotypic reversion and led to increased invasiveness and tumorigenicity. Thus, Rap1 acts as a central regulator of breast architecture, with normal levels of activation instructing polarity during acinar morphogenesis, and increased activation inducing tumor formation and progression to malignancy.

Normal establishment of epithelial tight junctions in mice and cultured cells lacking expression of ZO-3, a tight-junction MAGUK protein.

ZO-1, ZO-2, and ZO-3 are closely related MAGUK family proteins that localize at the cytoplasmic surface of tight junctions (TJs). ZO-1 and ZO-2 are expressed in both epithelia and endothelia, whereas ZO-3 is exclusively expressed in epithelia. In spite of intensive studies of these TJ MAGUKs, our knowledge of their functions in vivo, especially those of ZO-3, is still fragmentary. Here, we have generated mice, as well as F9 teratocarcinoma cell lines, that do not express ZO-3 by homologous recombination. Unexpectedly, ZO-3(-/-) mice were viable and fertile, and rigorous phenotypic analyses identified no significant abnormalities. Moreover, ZO-3-deficient F9 teratocarcinoma cells differentiated normally into visceral endoderm epithelium-like cells in the presence of retinoic acid. These cells had a normal epithelial appearance, and the molecular architecture of their TJs did not appear to be affected, except that TJ localization of ZO-2 was upregulated. Suppression of ZO-2 expression by RNA interference in ZO-3(-/-) cells, however, did not affect the architecture of TJs. Furthermore, the speed with which TJs formed after a Ca(2+) switch was indistinguishable between wild-type and ZO-3(-/-) cells. These findings indicate that ZO-3 is dispensable in vivo in terms of individual viability, epithelial differentiation, and the establishment of TJs, at least in the laboratory environment.

Expression and distribution of ZO-3, a tight junction MAGUK protein, in mouse tissues.

BACKGROUND: Three related MAGUK proteins, ZO-1, ZO-2 and ZO-3, are concentrated at the cytoplasmic surface of tight junctions. However, in contrast to ZO-1/ZO-2, our knowledge of the expression and distribution of ZO-3 is still fragmentary, partly due to a lack of antibodies that specifically distinguish ZO-3 from ZO-1 and ZO-2. RESULTS: We generated one pAb and one mAb that specifically recognized ZO-3 on Western blotting. The immunofluorescence signals obtained with these antibodies completely disappeared from ZO-1/ZO-2-positive tight junctions in the liver of ZO-3-deficient mice, indicating that the antibodies can be used to localize ZO-3 in various tissues by immunofluorescence microscopy. Immunofluorescence microscopy with these antibodies revealed that ZO-3 was concentrated at tight junctions in various types of epithelium, but not in endothelium or at cadherin-based cell-cell adhesion sites (spot adherens junctions of fibroblasts and intercalated discs of cardiac muscle cells), where ZO-1 and ZO-2 are concentrated. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that ZO-3 is expressed in a more epithelium-specific manner than ZO-1 and ZO-2. These observations provide for a better understanding of the functions of tight junction-associated MAGUKs.

The organization of tight junctions in epithelia: implications for mammary gland biology and breast tumorigenesis.

Tight junctions (TJs), the most apical components of the cell-cell junctional complexes, play a crucial role in the establishment and maintenance of cell polarity within tissues. In secretory glandular tissues, such as the mammary gland, TJs are crucial for separating apical and basolateral domains. TJs also create the variable barrier regulating paracellular movement of molecules through epithelial sheets, thereby maintaining tissue homeostasis. Recent advances reveal that TJs exist as macromolecular complexes comprised of several types of membrane proteins, cytoskeletal proteins, and signaling molecules. Many of these components are regulated during mammary gland development and pregnancy cycles, and several have received much attention as possible "tumor suppressors" during progression to breast cancer.