Description of the pre-reductional sex chromosome during male meiosis of Pachylis laticornis (Heteroptera: Coreidae).

In Heteroptera, the division of sex chromosomes is well defined as post-reductional for most of species, i.e., the first meiotic division is equational and the second is reductional. However, in some species pre-reductional division has been observed, whereby the first meiotic division is reductional and the second is equational. These include Anisops fieberi (Notonectidae), Ectrychotes disparate (Reduviidae), Dictyonota tricornis (Tingidae), and Archimerus alternatus (Coreidae), as well as other species of the genus Pachylis, in the family Coreidae. Thus, this study aimed to characterize the meiotic behavior of Pachylis laticornis, in order to consider whether this species also undergoes pre-reduction division for the sex chromosomes. Cytogenetic analysis of meiosis in P. laticornis made it possible to characterize the holocentric nature of the chromosomes, the chromosome number of this species [2n = 15 (2m + 12A + X0)], the chromosomal system of sex X0 type, and the presence of m-chromosomes. Furthermore, the analysis of anaphase I, telophase I and II allowed pre-reductional meiotic behavior to be observed for this sex chromosome. Thus, this meiotic behavior was confirmed for another species of Heteroptera, stressing the importance of more cytogenetic studies of meiosis to increase our understanding of variation in the behavior of sex chromosomes during spermatogenesis in heteropterans. Therefore, the present study describes the chromosomal number, the system of sex determination, and meiotic behavior of P. laticornis, corroborating the relationship of this species with others of the same genus.

Analysis of the mitochondrial COI gene and its informative potential for evolutionary inferences in the families Coreidae and Pentatomidae (Heteroptera).

The mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI) gene is one of the most popular markers used for molecular systematics. Fragments of this gene are often used to infer phylogenies, particularly the region near the 5'-end, which is used by the DNA Barcoding Consortium. With a growing number of sequences being deposited in the DNA barcoding database, there is an urgent need to understand the evolution of this gene and its evolutionary relationship among species; it is also important to analyze the informative potential of the gene for phylogenetic inferences for each group used. In this study, the COI gene was divided into three distinct regions: a 5'-region, a central region, and a 3'-region. The nucleotide composition of these regions was analyzed, and their potential for making informative phylogenetic inferences using species in the families Coreidae and Pentatomidae (Heteroptera) was assessed. It was found that the same region in the COI gene may present different behaviors for each family analyzed, and that using additional regions from the same gene may even prejudice the analysis.

Distribution of constitutive heterochromatin in Pachycoris torridus (Hemiptera, Scutelleridae) with different chromatic patterns.

The stink bug Pachycoris torridus is a pest of great agricultural importance due to its records on culture of physic nut (Jatropha curcas), which is the raw material for biodiesel production. An interesting feature of this insect is its high phenotypic variability, a characteristic that resulted in it being classified as a new species on eight separate occasions. In the suborder Heteroptera, the heterochromatin pattern is specific and often allows species to be differentiated. To confirm whether there is differentiation between specimens of P. torridus with different color patterns (yellow, orange, brown, and red), samples were analyzed cytogenetically using the C-banding method. During meiotic prophase, the four color patterns analyzed showed a large heterochromatic chromocenter, consisting of a combination of both sex chromosomes (X and Y). Thus, the present study reports chromosomal homogeneity in different color patterns of P. torridus and highlights the importance of this tool in the description of new species.

High genetic variability and polychromatism in Pachycoris torridus (Heteroptera: Scutelleridae).

The stink bug Pachycoris torridus is listed among the most polyphagous insects in the world and it is a major pest of diverse crops, in particular the physic nut Jatropha curcas, which is used as a raw material for biodiesel production. A peculiar characteristic of this species is its high phenotypic variability, a characteristic that makes identification difficult: P. torridus has been described as a new species eight times. Thus, to aid in identification, genetic characterization of this insect was performed. We verified that, due to the high genetic variability of P. torridus, several genetic patterns exist that result in the same phenotype.

Study of nucleolar behavior during spermatogenesis in Martarega brasiliensis (Heteroptera, Notonectidae).

Few cytogenetic studies have been undertaken using aquatic heteropterans and the nucleolar behavior of these insects has been described in only four species, Limnogonus aduncus, Brachymetra albinerva, Halobatopsis platensis, and Cylindrostethus palmaris. The nucleolus is a cellular structure related to biosynthetic activity and it exhibits a peculiar behavior in the heteropterans of the Triatominae subfamily; it persists during all stages of meiosis. Thus, this study aims to analyze spermatogenesis in Martarega brasiliensis, with an emphasis on nucleolar behavior. Twenty M. brasiliensis adult males were used and collected from the Municipal reservoir in the city of São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil. The species were fixed in methanol:acetic acid (3:1), then dissected, and the testicles were extracted, torn apart, and impregnated with silver ions. During prophase, the nuclei of M. brasiliensis were composed of the nucleolus and nucleolar corpuscles, which varied in number from one to four, emphasizing that this insect has great synthetic activity during meiosis. The analysis of cells in metaphase I showed that M. brasiliensis presents a nucleolar organizing region in at least one autosome. Furthermore, the phenomenon of nucleolar persistence was not observed. All spermatids presented nucleolar markings that varied in number and position according to the stage of elongation. Moreover, it was also possible to highlight the presence of a vesicle in spermatids. Thus, this paper describes the nucleolar behavior of M. brasiliensis and highlights important characteristics during spermatogenesis, thus, increasing the knowledge about the biology of these aquatic heteropterans.

The first assess of the haplotypes from COI gene sequences in species of spittlebugs (Cicadomorpha: Hemiptera) and aquatic true bugs (Gerromorpha and Nepomorpha: Hemiptera) in Brazil.

We made the first analysis of the COI gene sequences of 22 species of spittlebugs and aquatic true bugs sampled in São Paulo State (Brazil) and used this information to determine the variability within these groups. Considering each codon position, we observed that the third base was the most variable, and the first base was the most conserved. Among species, Mahanarva fimbriolata and Deois flavopicta had the greatest genetic distance (0.181), and Notozulia entreriana and Mahanarva sp had the smallest distance (0.055), with an average variation of 0.119. In Gerromorpha, the greatest distance occurred between Halobatopsis platensis and Rhagovelia zela (0.401), while between Cylindrostethus palmaris and Brachymetra albinervis albinervis, the distance was only 0.187; the average value observed for the Gerromorpha was 0.265. In the Nepomorpha, the species Buenoa antigone antigone and Belostoma micantulum had the greatest genetic distance (0.337), while Martarega brasiliensis and B. a. antigone had the smallest (0.154). The average value observed for Nepomorpha was 0.203. In Cicadomorpha (Auchenorrhyncha) and Nepomorpha (Heteroptera), the COI gene has been conserved; however, it is still useful for characterization of the different taxa. COI analysis was unable to resolve some of the Gerromorpha groups.

Spermatogenesis of riffle bugs, Rhagovelia whitei and Rhagovelia sp (Veliidae), and backswimmers Martarega sp (Notonectidae).

We examined the course of spermatogenesis and the meiotic chromosome complements in aquatic species of true bugs, Heteroptera. The chromosome complement of the Veliidae species was 2n = 39 (38A + X0) and 23 (22A + X0) in Rhagovelia whitei and Rhagovelia sp, respectively, and in the species of the Notonectidae (Martarega sp) it was 26 (22A + 2m + XY); all collected from the region of São José do Rio Preto, SP, Brazil. An impressive characteristic of the first analysis was the size of the cells belonging to Martarega sp, which were six times larger than the same cells in Pentatomidae and twice as large as the cells in aquatic Heteroptera (Gerridae). Regarding spermatogenesis, all the species analyzed showed the same pattern: holocentric chromosomes and elongated spermatids with the chromatin distributed evenly along the head. The family Veliidae showed several bodies impregnated with silver nitrate at prophase, while the family Notonectidae displayed only one. The cells of Notonectidae also showed an evident and round body until the end of prophase I and in the family Veliidae the silver-impregnated bodies were disorganized, where the only region visualized was possibly that of the NOR. In metaphase, silver-stained regions were found at the periphery of all chromosomes in Veliidae and at the periphery of some chromosomes in Notonectidae. The spermatids of Veliidae showed a less silver-impregnated vesicle, while Notonectidae showed silver staining only in part of the nuclear membrane. Therefore, families of Heteroptera have some differences and features that can help identify and classify these species.

Cytogenetic evidence for de novo synthesis of rRNA and involvement of nucleolar material in the organization of cell structures during spermiogenesis of Chariesterus armatus (Heteroptera, Coreidae).

The nucleolar material of Chariesterus armatus was analyzed during spermiogenesis in cell preparations impregnated with silver nitrate. Nucleolar corpuscles were observed in spermatids at the beginning of the process, showing that this organoid is also maintained after meiosis. In addition, nucleoli were seen in the round spermatids connected to the X-chromosome (bearer of the nucleolar organizer in C. armatus), indicating de novo synthesis of nucleolar material. This differs from the reorganization of ribosomal granules, transported from meiotic spermatocytes to round spermatids, where they would support protein synthesis, which is reported for other species. We also observed connections of nucleolar corpuscles to the nuclear membrane regions where the tail and the acrosome will be formed, suggesting close involvement of the nucleolar material in the formation of these structures. In addition to the nucleolar bodies, we detected silver-positive structures, which will require new approaches to clarify their role. One of these structures, observed in the cytoplasm, appears to correspond to the chromatoid body, which has been found in several organisms, but is still poorly understood; another is a complex structure to which the tail appears to be connected. We conclude that C. armatus is an appropriate model for understanding not only the synthesis of rRNA in the spermiogenesis, but also the functional meaning of the close relationship of nucleolar material with other structures during this process.

Spermatogenesis and karyotypes of three species of water striders (Gerridae, Heteroptera).

Although they are of economic importance, there have been few cytogenetic studies of the Gerridae (Heteroptera) in Brazil. We examined spermatogenesis (meiosis and spermiogenesis) and nucleolar behavior in three species of the family Gerridae. Brachymetra albinerva and Halobatopsis platensis were found to have a chromosome complement of 2n = 25 (24A + X0) and Cylindrostethus palmaris 2n = 29 (28A + X0) chromosomes. Fifteen individuals of these species were collected from the reservoir of São José do Rio Preto, SP, using screens and were transported in pots containing water to the laboratory, where cytogenetic preparations were made. The polyploidy nuclei are formed by several heteropyknotic regions; cells in meiotic prophase have a heteropyknotic region that is probably the sex chromosome, and the chromosomes from chiasmata. The spermatids are rounded and have a heteropyknotic region at the periphery of the nucleus; the sperm head is small, with a long tail. Silver impregnation of meiotic cells showed one or more disorganized bodies around the perichromosomal sheath. The round spermatids had two bodies next to each other, but these were elongated; one of the bodies remained in the head and the other migrated to the initial part of the tail at the end of spermagenesis, when the staining was no longer evident. The meiotic cells appear during spermatogenesis and have very similar silver-impregnation patterns in different species of Heteroptera.

Meiosis, spermatogenesis and nucleolar behavior in the seminiferous tubules of Alydidae, Coreidae and Rhopalidae (Heteroptera) species.

We studied the karyotype, spermatogenesis and nucleolar activity at spermatogenesis in five species of Heteropera: Hyalymenus sp and Neomegalotomus pallescens, Alydidae; Catorhintha guttula and Hypselonotus fulvus, Coreidae; and Niesthrea sidae, Rhopalidae. They showed a red (Alydidae) or orange (Coreidae and Rhopalidae) membrane covering the testes, which consisted of seven testicular lobes, except in N. pallescens, which had only five. All the species had m-chromosomes, an X0 sex chromosome system and 10 (Hyalymenus sp, N. pallescens, and N. sidae), 16 (H. fulvus) or 22 (C. guttula) autosomes. Similar to the other species described to date, all these species showed holocentric chromosomes, interstitial chiasmata in most autosomes, and autosomes dividing reductionally in the first meiotic division and equationally in the second, while sex chromosomes, divided equationally and reductionally in the first and second meiotic divisions, respectively. In addition, we observed that the sex chromosome is heteropycnotic at prophase and that heteropycnotic chromosomal material is found in the nuclei at spermatogenesis; variation in size, shape and location of the nucleolar material occurs during spermatogenesis, denoting a variable degree of activity in the different stages.

Programmed cell death in salivary glands of Drosophila arizonae and Drosophila mulleri.

Programmed cell death (PCD) in insect metamorphosis assumes a great diversity of morphology and controlling processes that are still not well understood. With the objective of obtaining information about the PCD process, salivary glands of Drosophila arizonae and D. mulleri were studied during larval-pupal development. From the results, it can be concluded that the type of the PCD that occurs in these organs is morphologically typical of apoptosis (formation of apoptotic nuclei, followed by fragmentation into apoptotic bodies). Histolysis happens in both species, between 22 and 23 h after pupation. There were no significant differences between the species studied. Apoptosis does not occur simultaneously in all cells. Cytoplasmic acid phosphatase activity gradually increases during development, suggesting the existence of acid phosphatases that are only expressed during the apoptotic stage. Twenty hours after pupation, salivary glands already show biochemical alterations relative to nuclear permeability such as acidification, possibly due to the fusion of lysosomes with the nucleus a few hours before apoptosis. Autophagy seems to act together with apoptosis and has a secondary role in cell death.

Pattern of silver nitrate-staining during meiosis and spermiogenesis in testicular lobes of Antiteuchus tripterus (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae).

The pattern of silver nitrate (Ag)-staining differed among testicular lobes of Antiteuchus tripterus. In general, these differences are in regard to the number, size, shape, coloring intensity, and location of the stained bodies or masses, observed during meiosis and spermiogenesis. These characteristics were similar in lobes 1-3. Lobes 4-6, however, differed from each other and from lobes 1-3 as well. Because the Ag-staining method is specific for nucleolar organizing regions and nucleolar material, the observations in meiosis of lobes 1-3 suggested the presence of a single pair of nucleolar organizing region-bearing chromosomes in A. tripterus, as previously found in other Pentatomidae species. In general, the amount of Ag-stained material seen in meiosis of the testicular lobes 1-3 of A. tripterus is smaller than in the other lobes. The differences among lobes observed during spermiogenesis included a striking variation in morphology of the Ag-stained material found in the head and tail of the spermatids. Given that the key role of the nucleolar material is to participate in protein synthesis, interlobular variations seem to be related to the different functions attributed to each lobe (reproduction to lobes 1-3 and basically nutrition to lobes 4-6). To our knowledge, this is the first time that the nucleolar material was studied in each testicular lobe during spermatogenesis. The present observations encourage further studies since, in addition to being of basic biological interest, several Pentatomidae species are agricultural pests and added knowledge of their biology, mainly in reproduction, may be important for the development of control strategies.

Pattern of silver nitrate-staining during meiosis and spermiogenesis in testicular lobes of Antiteuchus tripterus (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae)

The pattern of silver nitrate (Ag)-staining differed among testicular lobes of Antiteuchus tripterus. In general, these differences are in regard to the number, size, shape, coloring intensity, and location of the stained bodies or masses, observed during meiosis and spermiogenesis. These characteristics were similar in lobes 1-3. Lobes 4-6, however, differed from each other and from lobes 1-3 as well. Because the Ag-staining method is specific for nucleolar organizing regions and nucleolar material, the observations in meiosis of lobes 1-3 suggested the presence of a single pair of nucleolar organizing region-bearing chromosomes in A. tripterus, as previously found in other Pentatomidae species. In general, the amount of Ag-stained material seen in meiosis of the testicular lobes 1-3 of A. tripterus is smaller than in the other lobes. The differences among Ag-staining in testicular lobes of Antiteuchus tripterus lobes observed during spermiogenesis included a striking variation in morphology of the Ag-stained material found in the head and tail of the spermatids. Given that the key role of the nucleolar material is to participate in protein synthesis, interlobular variations seem to be related to the different functions attributed to each lobe (reproduction to lobes 1-3 and basically nutrition to lobes 4-6). To our knowledge, this is the first time that the nucleolar material was studied in each testicular lobe during spermatogenesis. The present observations encourage further studies since, in addition to being of basic biological interest, several Pentatomidae species are agricultural pests and added knowledge of their biology, mainly in reproduction, may be important for the development of control strategies.

Heteropicnotic chromatin and nucleolar activity in meiosis and spermiogenesis of Limnogonus aduncus (Heteroptera, Gerridae): a stained nucleolar organizing region that can serve as a model for studying chromosome behavior.

Males of Limnogonus aduncus were found to have the sex chromosome system X0 and chromosome number 2n = 23 (22A + X0). Testis cells were stained with lacto-acetic orcein and silver nitrate so that changes in the morphology and degree of staining of the heteropicnotic chromatin and the nucleolar material could be observed during meiosis and spermiogenesis. These structures share the same nuclear position and could be seen until almost the end of spermiogenesis. A chromosome region stained with silver nitrate was indicative of a nucleolar organizing region (NOR), which is rarely detected in Heteroptera with this technique. The NOR is located at one end of a single member of an autosome pair. The finding of this stained region enabled us to observe that the telomeric association of sister chromatids that characterizes the Heteroptera does not include the chromosome ends, where NORs are located; we also observed in anaphase that the chromosome end through which it is pulled to the pole is the one containing the NOR. Another observation was that the single nucleolar body present in the cells at anaphase never goes to the cell pole that does not receive the NOR. We conclude that L. aduncus is a good model for cytogenetic studies involving nucleolar activity and also may be useful for studying the mechanisms of activation and inactivation of kinetic activity at the chromosome ends. Although the chromosomes of Heteroptera are known to be holocentric, whether kinetic activity is restricted to one or involves both chromosome ends is still not well understood.

Programmed cell death in salivary glands of Drosophila arizonae and Drosophila mulleri

Programmed cell death (PCD) in insect metamorphosis assumes a great diversity of morphology and controlling processes that are still not well understood. With the objective of obtaining information about the PCD process, salivary glands of Drosophila arizonae and D. mulleri were studied during larval-pupal development. From the results, it can be concluded that the type of the PCD that occurs in these organs is morphologically typical of apoptosis (formation of apoptotic nuclei, followed by fragmentation into apoptotic bodies). Histolysis happens in both species, between 22 and 23 h after pupation. There were no significant differences between the species studied. Apoptosis does not occur simultaneously in all cells. Cytoplasmic acid phosphatase activity gradually increases during development, suggesting the existence of acid phosphatases that are only expressed during the apoptotic stage. Twenty hours after pupation, salivary glands already show biochemical alterations relative to nuclear permeability such as acidification, possibly due to the fusion of lysosomes with the nucleus a few hours before apoptosis. Autophagy seems to act together with apoptosis and has a secondary role in cell death.

Study of chromosomal and nucleolar aspects in testes of Nysius californicus (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae).

In Nysius californicus (family Lygaeidae, subfamily Orsillinae), a pest commonly known as the seed bug, the chromosome complement is 2n = 16 (12A + 2m + XY), testes are formed by seven seminiferous tubules covered by an orange-colored membrane, and spermatogenesis is cystic. At prophase, sex chromosomes are heteropycnotic and autosomes usually show a chiasma. At metaphase, sex chromosomes along with microchromosomes may be seen located at the center of a ring formed by the remaining autosomes. A characteristic specific of N. californicus was the presence of nucleolar material observed from the cystic cell to the completely differentiated spermatozoon. Variations in size, shape and location of the nucleolar material occur during this process, denoting a variable degree of activity in the different stages.

Study of chromosomal and nucleolar aspects in testes of Nysius californicus (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae)

In Nysius californicus (family Lygaeidae, subfamily Orsillinae), a pest commonly known as the seed bug, the chromosome complement is 2n = 16 (12A + 2m + XY), testes are formed by seven seminiferous tubules covered by an orange-colored membrane, and spermatogenesis is cystic. At prophase, sex chromosomes are heteropycnotic and autosomes usually show a chiasma. At metaphase, sex chromosomes along with microchromosomes may be seen located at the center of a ring formed by the remaining autosomes. A characteristic specific of N. californicus was the presence of nucleolar material observed from the cystic cell to the completely differentiated spermatozoon.Variations in size, shape and location of the nucleolar material occur during this process, denoting a variable degree of activity in the different stages.

New evidence for nucleolar dominance in hybrids of Drosophila arizonae and Drosophila mulleri.

Drosophila mulleri (MU) and D. arizonae (AR) are cryptic species of the mulleri complex, mulleri subgroup, repleta group. Earlier cytogenetic studies revealed that these species have different regulatory mechanisms of nucleolar organizing activity. In these species, nucleolar organizing regions are found in both the X chromosome and the microchromosome. In the salivary glands of hybrids between MU females and AR males, there is an interspecific dominance of the regulatory system of the D. arizonae nucleolar organizer involving, in males, amplification and activation of the nucleolar organizer from the microchromosome. The authors who reported these findings obtained hybrids only in that cross-direction. More recently, hybrids in the opposite direction, i.e., between MU males and AR females, have been obtained. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate, in these hybrids, the association of the nucleoli with the chromosomes inherited from parental species in order to cytogenetically confirm the dominance patterns previously described. Our results support the proposed dominance of the AR nucleolar organizer activity over that of MU, regardless of cross-direction.

New evidence for nucleolar dominance in hybrids of Drosophila arizonae and Drosophila mulleri

Drosophila mulleri (MU) and D. arizonae (AR) are cryptic species of the mulleri complex, mulleri subgroup, repleta group. Earlier cytogenetic studies revealed that these species have different regulatory mechanisms of nucleolar organizing activity. In these species, nucleolar organizing regions are found in both the X chromosome and the microchromosome. In the salivary glands of hybrids between MU females and AR males, there is an interspecific dominance of the regulatory system of the D. arizonae nucleolar organizer involving, in males, amplification and activation of the nucleolar organizer from the microchromosome. The authors who reported these findings obtained hybrids only in that cross-direction. More recently, hybrids in the opposite direction, i.e., between MU males and AR females, have been obtained. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate, in these hybrids, the association of the nucleoli with the chromosomes inherited from parental species in order to cytogenetically confirm the dominance patterns previously described. Our results support the proposed dominance of the AR nucleolar organizer activity over that of MU, regardless of cross-direction.

The development of resistance to caffeine in Drosophila prosaltans: productivity and longevity after ten generations of treatment.

The productivity of Drosophila prosaltans treated with six concentrations of caffeine (from 50 micrograms/ml to 2,500 micrograms/ml of culture medium) during ten generations (approximately 8 months) decreased in a dosage dependent manner in every generation, but at the end of the treatment the flies in all experiments recovered normal productivity, except for those treated with 2,500 micrograms/ml. Longevity in the tenth generation was significantly reduced in males and females only in the 2,500 micrograms/ml dosage, with males being much more affected than females. In a previous study in which the treatment was done in a single generation, productivity exhibited only a partial recovery when the treatment ceased and longevity was significantly reduced in 1,500 micrograms/ml dosages. The hypothesis of selection occurring in ten generations leading to recovery in productivity and to a reduction in the processes which cause a decrease in longevity is being considered.